Term
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Definition
Mid 1800s
European
Focused on looking at animals in natural environment
"How do they naturally behave?"
Watch and make notes
Underpinning of nature vs. nurture |
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Term
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Definition
In North America
Interested in mechanisms of behviour
In lab, behavior due to different stimuli
Underpinning of nature vs. nurture |
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Term
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Definition
Pre-1900s
Monks
Observe lords creation |
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Term
| Melding of Ethology and Comparative Psychology |
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Definition
Lead to 1972-Nobel Prize in Medicine
"Known as the birth of Animal behaviour" |
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Term
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Definition
1963
4 Levels of Causation of Behaviour
-Answer why animal behaves the way it does
-Causation
-Ontogeny
-Function
-Evolution |
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Term
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Definition
Physiology
-Cells, hormone, muscles, etc to produce behaviour |
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Term
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Definition
Development of behaviour
"How did the individual come to behave the way it does"
"What has happened to it in it's lifetime?" |
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Term
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Definition
| "How does that behaviour contribute to survival and reproduction?" |
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Term
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Definition
Historical origins of behaviour
"How did behaviour evolve over time" |
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Term
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Definition
Immediate mechanisms
-within lifetime of indivial
-Phsiology
-Ontogeny
Immediate underlying cause based on the operation of internal mechanisms possessed by the individual
"How?" |
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Term
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Definition
Historical mechanisms
-Outside lifetime of individual
-Fitness
-Evolution
Evolutionary, historical reason why something is the way it is
"Why?" |
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Term
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Definition
Causal Question
Hypothesis
Prediction
(Test)Observe
Conclusions in light of original hypothesis |
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Term
Timbergen 1963
Blackheaded Gulls
"Why parents fly off with shells of eggs?" |
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Definition
Nest Colonially (Nest on the land)
Vulnerable by the land/sky, thus at least one parent always at nest, except when chicks hatched.
Theory based on observation:
Broken eggs are bright white, easier for predators to see
Adults risk time away from chicks to take eggs shells away |
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Term
| Why Parents fly off with shells of eggs? |
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Definition
Timbergen painted eggs white and placed them different distances away from nest.
What was the percentage of predation at varying distances?
Showed that closer egg shells to nest, greater predation
Conclusion: Defense could evolve as anti-predator defense |
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Term
Testing Alternate Hypotheses:
Infanticide-"why"?
Kill all cubs under nine months.
"When challenge is won by outsider against alpha male of lion pride"
Kill all cubs under nine months. |
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Definition
Population Regulation
Cannabalism
Reproductive Opportunities |
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Term
| Testing Alternate Hypotheses: Population Regulation |
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Definition
Alpha male has expended a lot energy
Therefore are hungry, and every individual not there gives more food for you
Pick on most vulnerable.
Prediction: Should see infanticide in prides where food is scarce or lots of individuals
Observed: Cannabalism observed no matter size or food scarcity |
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Term
Testing Alternate Hypotheses:
Cannabalism |
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Definition
Just really hungry and eats cubs for energy
Prediction: Should see new alpha male eating cubs all the time. Is there record of alpha killing cub and eating it.
Observed: Cannabalism never observed |
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Term
| Testing Alternate Hypotheses: Reproductive Opportunities |
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Definition
Females ready for reproduction (into ester) when her cubs dead.
New cubs are now from new alpha male
Prediction: Kill all cubs except for own. Females would right away mate with new alpha male. See simliar behaviour in other species with simliar social systems
Observed: Never see alpha male kill own cubs. Females with dead offspring mate with new alpha male. Simliar behaviour in similiar social system |
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Term
Testing Alternate Hypotheses:
Predictions-Look at related species/Other species with similar selection pressures |
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Definition
Hanuman langurs: Simliar social system with lions.
When alpha male dead, new alpha male will kill cubs.
Waterbugs: Males guard clutch of eggs laid by females fertilized by male.
Male will only mate when ovacide to first eggs (eggs stabbed by another female). Male will then fertilize new female's egg.
Conclusion: Through observation of waterbug and hanuman langurs, can conclude that infanticide due to greater reproductive opportunites. |
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Term
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Definition
Divergent Evolution/Convergent Evolution
Look to other species to look for clues to why first species behave the way it does
What might be environmental influence vs. genetic influence |
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Term
| Comparative Method: Divergent Evolution |
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Definition
Albatross/Penguin: What is difference?
Due to different enviroment/selection pressures
Same ancestors, but different environments |
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Term
| Comparative Method: Convergent Evolution |
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Definition
Do not share genetic information, but similar behaviours
Solve problem in same way because of simliar selection pressure |
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Term
| Comparative Method: Blackheaded gulls vs. Cliff nesting Kittiwake |
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Definition
| High relation, both gulls |
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Term
| Blackheaded gulls vs. Cliff nesting Kittiwake |
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Definition
| Blackheaded gulls collectively mob predator out of nesting sight, whereas kittiwake gulls do not |
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Term
| Blackheaded gulls vs. Cliff nesting Kittiwake: Why no mobbing behaviour in kittiwake? |
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Definition
Why no response to predators?
Different selection pressure even with similar genetics.
Kittiwakes chicks live on cliffs, thus mobbing behaviour not evolved due to no selection pressure.
Kittiwake parents do not recognise own offspring: chicks don't move a lot. No selection pressure (What's in nest is probably theirs)
Known as Divergent Evolution |
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Term
| Comparative Method: California Ground Squire vs. Blackheaded gulls |
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Definition
Very distantly related species, little shared genetic material
Both exhibit mobbing behaviour. Both out in open, few hiding places.
Perhaps due to simliar selection pressure, not common ancestor
Both always recognize their offspring. Simliar selection pressure (offspring move a lot, probably some form of imprinting)
Convergent Evolution |
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Term
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Definition
Behaviour is combination of both
Interaction between two components. Genetics interacts with experience |
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Term
| Nature vs. Nurture: Songbirds |
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Definition
Male birds sing in the spring, species specific song.
Songs complexity can be sung over and over again.
Courtship in spring. Males sing same song.
When born, males do not produce song in first spring. Next spring can produce same song after short period.
Not species specific song, but rather population specific song (DIALECTS).
Most likely to attract females with DIALECTS.
Learned trait or Born knowing? |
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Term
Nature vs. Nurture: How do songbirds know their song?
Experiment 1: Hatch eggs in incubator and raise males in isolation with hearing others for year. Reintroduce into population, what song do they sing? |
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Definition
Now adult males produce song, simliar, but not same song.
Isolate variable: Something about initial spring. Need to hear song in first spring.
LEARNED BEHAVIOUR |
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Term
Nature vs. Nurture: How do songbirds know their song?
Experiment 2: Hatch eggs and raise them as normal until first year, then deafen sub-adult males in second spring |
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Definition
Result: Adult males produce simliar song, but not exact. Known as sub song
LEARNED BEHAVIOUR |
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Term
Nature vs. Nurture: Songbirds
What is shown by experiment 1 & 2? |
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Definition
Learning involved when producing species specific song. Shown two critical period.
First Spring: Imprint species specific song, without production
Second Spring: Need to be around other males around environment to produce song.
DOUBLE CRITICAL PERIOD |
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Term
Nature vs. Nurture: Songbirds
Brain slices. |
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Definition
RA involved in song production in white crowned sparrow.
RA in Female brain much smaller than Males RA in spring.
Gene that encodes for testosterone and proliferation of specialized nerve cells.
In spring, RA area expands. Increase in testosterone controlled by light/dark cycle.
Shows genetic component |
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Term
| Can songbirds learn song of another species? |
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Definition
Change variable during one or both of the critical periods.
Cannot learn other species song.
Show genetic component. |
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Term
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Definition
Idea that sexually selective traits are costly to produce
Horns, etc.
The more access to nutrients, bigger, better antlers |
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Term
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Definition
Notice mice really good at collective material for nesting or didn't know what to do with material.
What is that genetic component |
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Term
| Carol Lynch: What is that genetic component? |
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Definition
Mate mice with good nesting together and mice with bad nesting together.
Just 15 generations to show extreme seperation between amount of material collected for nests 15g compared to 50. |
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Term
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Definition
| The change in frequency of different alleles overtime relative to one another. |
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Term
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Definition
The MECHANISM whereby evolution occurs
The process the produces evolutionary change when individuals differ in heritable traits that are correlated with difference in their individual reproductive success.
Main components needed for natural selection:
-Different Individual Traits (alleles)
-Heritable Traits (alleles)
-Reproductive Success |
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Term
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Definition
Son of prominent man
Naturalist on HMS Beagle
Galapagos Islands |
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Term
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Definition
| Small group of islands, noticed related species of finches that differed slightly on each island |
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Term
| Galapagos Islands: Finches |
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Definition
Darwin saw consistent differences. Individuals unique there is variation within species.
Traits have heritable component that can get passed on |
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Term
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Definition
| Farmers select for favourable traits. |
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Term
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Definition
Economist. Exponential human population will run out of resources. There are natural population check to stop population growth: murder, depression, starvation.
Darwin: some variants have more success than other variants
Some allele combination have have give better phenotypical reproductive success. |
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Term
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Definition
If population has variable trait
It trait is genetic
Then some form trait will be better for reproduction.
Variants of traits contribute differentially to reproduction |
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Term
| Variation: Where does variation come from? |
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Definition
| Variation allelic forms by recombination and mutation |
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Term
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Definition
| Chromosomes break and trade segmens with another |
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Term
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Definition
Have to occur in the germ line (sex cells)
Mutation usually silent and probably deleterious.
Gene: addition, deletion, substitution of nucleotides
Chromosomal:
inversion, translocations
Very improbable |
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Term
| Selection acts on phenotype not genotype |
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Definition
Phenotype is a combination of the genetic contribution and environment.
Selection act on the gene in the environment |
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Term
| Differential Reproduction of types |
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Definition
| Don't need huge difference. If variation has slightest difference, can get effect down time. |
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Term
| What determines what variation of phenotype is most advantageous? |
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Definition
The environment in which the individual resides
Include other individuals and natural setting (social environment) |
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Term
| Environment: Silent/Deleterious traits |
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Definition
Because environment is variable, these traits can become active/advantageous over time.
Changes does not cause variation. Variation has to exist, change in environment reveals variation. |
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Term
| Can behaviour evolve from natural selection? |
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Definition
Can behaviour be variable?
-Yes Can behaviour have heritable component?
-Probably, yes
Can behaviour contribute to differential survival?
-Definately Therefore behaviour can contribute to reproductive success (fitness) |
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Term
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Definition
Probability of having offspring
Probably of offspring having offspring
Probably of offspring having offspring having offspring
etc.
A measure of the genes contributing to the next generation by an individual, often state in the number of offspring that survive to reproduce |
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Term
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Definition
Behaviorial variation contribution more than others.
An evolved characteristic that confers higher fitness on individuals than any other existing alternative exhibited by other individuals within the population |
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Term
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Definition
Genes do not code for specific behaviours. Long path way that leads to result.
Genetic Component: Regulatory & structural Genes-Enzymes-Cell Metabolism-Physiological Mechanisms-Behaviour |
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Term
| Genetic Component: Regulatory & structural Genes |
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Definition
ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENT: Environmental influences turn genes on and off
Post: amino acids |
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Term
| Genetic Component: Enzymes |
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Definition
ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENT:
Post: carbs, fats, protiens
Post II: Environment (temperature) |
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Term
| Genetic Component: Cell Metabolism |
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Definition
ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENT:
Post: carbs, fats, protiens
Post II: Environment (visual input for development of nervous system) |
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Term
| Genetic Component: Physiological Mechanisms |
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Definition
ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENT:
Post: Environment (social enviroment |
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Term
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Definition
ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENT:
Pre: Environment (social enviroment |
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Term
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Definition
| Behaviors dependent on one gene |
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Term
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Definition
| Behaviors dependent on multiple gene |
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Term
| Single Gene Effects: Belle & Skolowski: |
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Definition
Sitters vs. Rovers
Mednelian Cross: Get predicted ratio. (Think penant squares)
Due to single gene |
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Term
| Single Gene Effects: Knockout Mutation |
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Definition
Done a lot with rats
ABCD 2 knockout in mice (hyperactivity/skittishness) |
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Term
| Single Gene Effects: Viral Vector Gene Transfer |
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Definition
Give gene to virus, then infect individual to change gene
Transfer vasopressin receptor gene of prarie vole into meddow vole show more time spend with cagemate. |
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Term
| Single Gene Effects: Prarie vole vs. meddow vole |
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Definition
Meddow voles are promiscuous, mate with any females/males. Polyamorous
Prarie voles attach to individuals. Monogomous
Brain slices show that vasopressin receptor (love feeling) show more in monogomous prarie vole. Huddle more with cagemate than stranger, and latch on more than meddow voles.
Meddow voles spend about the same amount of time huddling with cagemate as they do with strangers. |
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Term
Multi-gene effects: MOST BEHAVIOURS(COMPLEX) POLYGENIC
-Brown & Brown |
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Definition
Gross fostering:
Cliff swallows nest in cliff cavities. Some colonies live in huge colonies at bottom, others live in smaller colonies higher up.
Brown: See the offspring of small colony showed preference for small colony, offspring of large colony showed preference for large colony. |
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Term
Multi-gene effects: Cross fostering
-Brown & Brown |
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Definition
Chicks taken from big colony to parents of small colony, vice versa.
Parents do not imprint to own chicks.
Controlling variable: Environment
Conclusion: Chicks from large colony raised in small colony chose large colony
ConclusionII: Chicks from small colony raised in large colony chose small colony
Therfore, there is some genetic component |
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Term
| Multi-gene effects: Twin Adoption Studies |
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Definition
| Minisota adoption study: Reunite long lost twins to see similarity |
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Term
| Multi-gene effects: In bred Line |
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Definition
Bred lines together.
Take individuals with similar traits and select out different lines/behaviours |
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Term
| Multi-gene effects: Quantitative Genetics |
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Definition
Variance: V subpheno = V subgene + VsubEnv
Variation in phenotype due to variation in genotype and phenotype
Population measure. All variation in phenotype vs. environment. |
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Term
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Definition
To what degree is trait variance due to genetic variance and response to selection
(H^2) = (V subg)/ V subp
V subpheno = V subgene + VsubEnv
Therfore
(H^2) = V subg/ ( V subpheno = V subgene + VsubEnv)
0 < h^2 < 1
Measured through controlled bredding experiments (environment):
-Parent-Offspring Regression
-Artificial Selection |
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Term
| Heritability: Parent-Offspring Regression |
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Definition
Not used much
Observe trait in parent then observe trait in offspring.
Foster two individuals with similar trait and see if offspring have same variant of trait
NOTE: TO ISOLATE HERITABLE/GENETIC COMPONENT, MUST CONTROL FOR SIMILAR DUE TO COMMON ENVIRONEMENT (Think parent language and offspring language) |
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Term
| Heritability: Artificial Selection |
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Definition
Crickets calling for long duration and short duration.
In bred long callers and short callers (individuals at two extremes)
After certain generations, could select out for short callers and long callers.
Variation has to have already been there for selection to occur. Extremes not created, but rather brought out. |
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Term
| Social environment: Guppies |
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Definition
| Bigger, less spawn when less predation. Smaller, more spawn when more predation |
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Term
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Definition
| Traits that increase an individual's relative success in obtaining mating are passed on to successive generation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Sexual population has more variability in traits than asexual |
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Term
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Definition
The female with the rarest exception, is less eager than the male...she is coy, any may often be seen endeavouring for a long time to escape.
Blue-footed booby:
Males and females approach mating/offspring differently |
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Term
| Why do males and females behave so differently: Anisogamy |
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Definition
Within a species, the sexes have gametes of different sizes
Females put more energy into gamete, can produce few.
Males put much less energy, can produce many |
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Term
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Definition
| Specialization of gametes. One takeover to provide nutrients, other is motile. |
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Term
| Why do males and females behave so differently: Paternal Uncertainty |
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Definition
Internal fertilizers.
Females known it is mother of offspring, males do not have that certainty. May not be the males specific offspring. Can be sure energy is given into their offspring (gestation, lactation, etc)
Therefore, for males, energy is loss is low. |
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Term
| Difference in Lifetime Reproductive Success: Bateman |
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Definition
How many offspring in a lifetime can male and female produce.
Bateman: The more mates given to a male, the more offspring it will have.
The more mates you give female, initially increase in offspring, but level off quickly. Dips and then rises a little again.
Conclusion: limit for females not males |
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Term
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Definition
males have therefore evolved an
"undiscriminating eagerness" to mate,
whereas females display “discriminating passivity"
Females in general protect few and far between opportunities |
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Term
| Difference in Lifetime Reproductive Success: Further difference between males and females |
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Definition
Bateman: variance in number of offspring in females is low. But high variance in number of offspring.
Little variance with number of mating for females (1-2)
High variation in number of matings. Some males get no matings at all. |
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Term
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Definition
Males limited to access to males. Therefore want young, fertile mates.
Females limit access to resource (time and energy). Therefore, want mates with resources, paternal care |
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Term
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Definition
The ratio of sexually receptive maels to sexually receptive females at any one time.
Males: Ready for sex all the time
Females: Can be out of commission for long periods of time.
Males always competing for time with females |
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Term
| Difference in Lifetime Reproductive Success: |
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Definition
| Males and females differ in their potential rate of reproduction between males and females. |
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Term
| Operational Sex Ratio: Females |
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Definition
| Can afford to be choosy, because males always available. |
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Term
| Operational Sex Ratio: Males |
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Definition
| Can't afford to be choosy. Much compete with other males for limited time with females |
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Term
| Sexual Selection Components |
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Definition
Intersex Mate Choice
Intrasex Competition |
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Term
| Sexual Selection Components: Intersex Mate Choice |
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Definition
| Generally, females who are the limiting resource, can afford to be choosy |
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Term
| Sexual Selection Components: Intrasex Competition |
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Definition
Males must COMPETE with many rivals for access to females.
Not always outright physical competition, but usually is. |
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Term
| Intrasex Competition: Cost/Benefit Analysis: |
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Definition
Why males fight?
Big benefit for winner, get most of the mating, many females |
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Term
| Intrasex Competition: Cost/Benefit Analysis: Elephant Seals |
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Definition
LeBeouf: Alpha males get most of the matings.
Cause extreme sexual dimorphism: Males 4-5x size of females
The larger the male is, the more females the male monopolizes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Usually found in species where males control much of female harem. |
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Term
| Sexual Selection Components: Intrasex Competition, not physical |
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Definition
| Gives rise to alternative mating tactics. Sneak matings to unsuspecting females. Not as many as alpha males, but still get matings. |
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Term
ALTERNATE MATING TACTICS: Sneaker Strategy
Bluegill Sunfish
Males take care of eggs after fertilization |
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Definition
Blue gill Sunfish
Males rest colonially
Parental (sexual maturity at 8) vs. Cuckold Males (sexual maturity at 2)
Cuckold Males (Sneaker/satellite)
-Males who fertilize eggs not theirs. |
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Term
| Bluegill Sunfish: Sneaker |
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Definition
Smaller, do not build nests, do not provide parental care (no defense of eggs)
Usually young males
offspring at young age. |
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Term
| Bluegill Sunfish: Satellite |
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Definition
Female Mimics
Middle males in age and size |
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Term
| Bluegill Sunfish: What determines whether Sneaker or Parental |
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Definition
Not Genetics (genetically possible to be any kind of male).
Frequency dependent selection |
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Term
| Frequency Dependent Selection |
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Definition
| Selection based on what everyone else is doing. |
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Term
| Conditional Mating Strategies |
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Definition
Do not inherit type of male, but inherit flexibility to become any type. Type depends on condition.
Explains systems where some strategies are inferior to procreate exist.
"Making the best of a bad job"
Not all males have the resources to be main male. |
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Term
| Conditional Mating Strategies (Alternative mating strategies): Instantaneous Female Mimicry in Cuttlefish Hanlon, Naud & Shaw |
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Definition
64% mating be consort (parental male)
34% by small males (open stealth/hidden stealth/FEMALE MIMICS) |
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Term
| Conditional Mating Strategies: FEMALE MIMICS, Cuddlefish |
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Definition
Small male changes colour into female colour to distact consort male, then other small males mate.
Also prevents females from leaving. |
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Term
| Fixed Mating (alternative mating strategies) |
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Definition
Different, hereditarily distinct reproductive tactics can
coexist within a species under the same conditions
eg: Ruffs |
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Term
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Definition
Territorial Males (85%)
Satellite Males (15%)
Differ by one allele
On the eggs of territory lie satellite males. Sometimes, Terroritorial male lets satellite males.
Satellite males need territorial males to attract females
Females attracted to areas with many males. Territorial male puts up with satellite males, because attract females
Sneak copulations keep population over time static.
Recently discovered third male (faeder male). Act as female mimics (1/100). |
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Term
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Definition
Females choose males:
Direct Benefits
Indirect Benefits |
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Term
INTERsexual mate choice: Direct Benefits
Benefits for female |
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Definition
healthy mate
food (for her)
protection (for her)
territory (for her)
parental care (food, protection, habitat for offspring) |
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Term
INTERsexual mate choice: Indirect Benefits
Benefits for offspring |
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Definition
territory (for her)
parental care (food, protection, habitat for offspring)
good genes
genetic compatibility
“punked” |
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Term
| Direct Benefits: Female chooses males that give most of Direct Benefit |
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Definition
Resources, above and beyond sperm, that increase a female’s child-bearing potential/survival
Different females choose different quality in males for most benefit for female. That preference is then passed onto to offspring
Protection, grooming, habitat, food. |
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Term
| Indirect Benefits: Female choose males that give most benefit to offspring and indirectly her. |
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Definition
help the offspring, themselves,
and thus help females through
their offspring. |
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Term
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Definition
Both Direct/Indirect Female
Indirect: Enables female use less energy in parenting
Direct: Energy saved allows for greater chance of survival. |
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Term
| Direct Benefits: Healthy Mate |
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Definition
Choosing mate that does not have ectoparasites.
Do not want to catch disease from male. Direct benefit to female, when not sick.
ex: grooming |
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Term
| Indirect Benefits: Genetic Compatibility (Inbreeding Avoidance) |
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Definition
Want to bred in ideal genetic distance.
If too close, then increase likelihood of inheriting resessive genetic disease. Will cause lowering of offspring survival. |
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Term
| Genetic Compatibility: Japanese Quail |
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Definition
Prefer first cousins the most. Ideal genetic distance
Mating with somewhat relative can be beneficial, because have some of same genes.
Don't want to mate with anyone too closely related |
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Term
| Indirect Benefits: Genetic Compatibility (Inbreeding Avoidance) |
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Definition
“Trust-worthy, but Not Lust-worthy”
Certain species can recognize family, especially when family does not disperse from one another.
Recognition of family: Self-resemblance (subconscious). |
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Term
| Indirect Benefits: Good Genes Theory |
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Definition
| Genes that will advance the offspring's chances of survival and reproductive success. |
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Term
| How can females detect good genes? |
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Definition
Males have indicator mechanisms to show good genes. Males that don't have good genes may not be able to fake.
Develop Elaborate Secondary Sex Characteristics |
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Term
| Elaborate Secondary Sex Characteristics |
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Definition
| Ex: Peacocks. Males showy, females drab. |
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Term
| Indicator Mechanism: Handicap Hypothesis (showing off how much energy can expend and survive.) |
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Definition
| Indicates that males is good male, because he can have/maintain energy expensive features and still survive against predators, etc. |
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Term
| Cut and Paste Ornathology: Does the amount of eye spots make a difference to female preference? |
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Definition
Showed decrease in the number of copulations with decrease in eye spots.
More eyes spots, greater percentage of chicks survive past year two.
HANDICAP HYPOTHESIS |
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Term
| Cut and Paste Ornathology: Annderson |
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Definition
Take what birds naturally have (Secondary sex characteristics) manipulate them and compare them to control. Four things can happen to characteristics.
Cut tail
Elongate tale
Don't do anything to tail (control)
Cut tail and glue back on (control)
-Control for manipulation
Check for mean number of females nesting.
Longer tails get more females than short. Both controls in the middle. |
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Term
| Indicator Mechanism: Handicap Hypothesis (Showing off physically) |
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Definition
Can produce afford to produce energy expensive feature.
Shows parasite resistance, accumulate nutrients, can acquire rare foods, etc.
Shows health, ability to accumulate rare things. |
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Term
| Why are natural selection and sexual selection differently defined? |
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Definition
Sexual selection part of natural selection
Sometimes natural selection and sexual selection in opposition to one another. Peacock tails.
Natural selection alone would state that some sexually selected for traits should not occur.
Which win? Depends on the predation pressure vs. mating pressure. |
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Term
|
Definition
Sensory Bias: Take advantage of pre-
existing preferences.
Female preference for orange, etc |
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Term
| Sex-roled reversed species |
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Definition
Lots of females, few males.
Change in operational sex ratio. |
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Term
| Dynamic Sex Role Reversal: Operational Sex Ratio |
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Definition
| When change in operational sex ratio occurs, role reversal occurs within a season |
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Term
| Dynamic Sex Role Reversal: Goby |
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Definition
Begin of season show normal sex roles, but as season continues, males die. Shows reversal in operational sex ratio from male bias to female bias.
Agonistic (competition/fighting) between individuals lessens with males and increases with females as season goes on.
Females start to court males as season continues. |
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Term
|
Definition
Determined by limiting sex
Monogamy
Polygamy
Polyandry
Promiscuity |
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Term
|
Definition
Exists because on sex contributes to the production of each individual offspring more than the other
The more contributing sex is the limiting sex |
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Term
| Sexual Selection: Monogamy |
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Definition
1 Male, 1 female.Within particular breeding season
Can see serial monogamy, can also see lifetime monogamy. |
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Term
| Sexual Selection: Polygyny |
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Definition
For every male, can copulate with multiple females
Within particular breeding season
In most species, because females usually limiting, determine the mating system. Potential rate of reproduction is greater in males. Operational Sex Ratio (OSR) greater for males than females. |
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Term
| Sexual Selection: Polyandry |
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Definition
For every female, can copulate with multiple males
Within particular breeding season |
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Term
| Sexual Selection: Promiscuity |
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Definition
Everyone mates with everyone
Different kinds of promiscuity
Polyamory: In love with many? |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
| Why see Monogamy, because its more beneficial to mate with more than one females? |
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Definition
Particular in mammals (rodents)
Benefit vs. cost
More beneficial to stay monogamous than to find another female.
-Mate Assistance
-Guarding
-Female enforcing |
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Term
| Monogamy: Mate-Assistance |
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Definition
Contribution of father is bigger difference in survival than multiple partners.
Study: Number of offspring born is not determined by sex system, offspring leaving nest/development dependant on male sticking around. |
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Term
|
Definition
OSR is highly male biased, thus competition is looking to fertilize your woman.
Female re productivity is so short that, that male sticks around female so that male is there for copulate when reproductive window opens.
Second Male precedent: Higher chance of second male producing offspring. Thus primary male stays to protect female. |
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Term
| Monogamy: Female Enforcing |
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Definition
Females enforce monogamy. Attack male if they attempt to leave
Wolves attack other females, to keep them away from mate. |
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Term
| Monogamy: Perhaps not genetically monogamous |
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Definition
Partner may be around to help, but offspring are from another
Behavioural Observation + Genetic fingerprinting
Extra-pair copulations:
Sneak copulations with another not your partner |
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Term
| Monogamy: Perhaps not genetically monogamous (Indigo Buntings) |
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Definition
In females in most fertile time copulate with EPC and pair mate.
Pair mate does not suspect if egg not his |
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Term
| PROMISCUITY: Polygynandry |
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Definition
"Swingers"
Pairs of mates that share each other
Female encompasses area of two males. Males protect their own territory. Vice vera
Have certain pair bonds.
Without Pair bonds, full on sex everywhere. |
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Term
|
Definition
Why?
-Fertility Assurance
-Good Genes
-Convenience
-Genetic Compatibility
Females Limited by Males |
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Term
| Polyandry: Fertility Assurance |
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Definition
Have to mate with multiple males to ensure fertilization.
Females lay clutch of eggs soon after fertilization. Lay one egg per day for entire clutch. In order to have as many eggs possible, need minimum number of insemination. |
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Term
|
Definition
Ensure the best genes possible. More males is more possibility of getting better males
Blue Tits:Have social pairmate, but female has EPC. Males with good quality genes have females with less EPCs and good gened males have more EPCs. |
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Term
|
Definition
Female can actually get hurt, therefore let forceful copulation occur.
Too much resource/energy to stop sex from multiple males. |
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Term
| Polyandry:Genetic Compatibility |
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Definition
| Mate with best genetic line, avoid inbreeding. |
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Term
| Mating Systems: Polyandry |
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Definition
In a resource starved system for males
Females limited by males
Fitness is limited by access to resources
Females in need of resources males provide:
-food
-protection
-parental care
Many males=many more resources |
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Term
Mating Systems: Polyandry (Jacanas)
-Sex Role Reversal |
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Definition
Females have males in different site.
Males provide parental care as females leave
Species suffers predation, so females to lay as many eggs as possible
See size diamorphism in females because of competition for males
Greater variance of females reproductive success. Some females have a lot of males, where some have few.
Females commit infanticide/ovacide to get male to get into reproductive status.
Larger female gets more males. |
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Term
|
Definition
Males have more mates, usually higher fitness in species.
Male fitness limited by access to females |
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Term
| Mating Systems: Polygyny (female defence polygyny) |
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Definition
|
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Term
| Mating Systems: Polygyny (Resource Defence Polygyny) |
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Definition
| Do not live together, but some together for some resource, male protects resource to gain access to females. |
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Term
| Mating Systems: Polygyny (Resource Defence Polygyny)-Dunnuck |
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Definition
Change Dunnuck home range/Increase home range by changing food availability
Does that result change in number of males copulating?
Less homerange is less males, where greater homerange is more males |
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Term
Mating Systems: Polygyny (Scramble Competition Polygyny)
-squirrel |
|
Definition
Females widely dispersed.
Males try to find as many females as possible before other males. Remember position of females, imprint and then mate with imprinted later on.
Selects for increased spatial learning ability (SLA). Males with better SLA get more matings. Spend a lot more time looking for females in esterous female. |
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Term
| Mating Systems: Polygyny (Lek Polygyny) |
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Definition
| Females so dispersed, that males come together in a single place. Females come to the place to mate. Males display, best display gets the most females. (Males lovers, not fighters) |
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Term
| Polygyny Threshold Model (PTM) |
|
Definition
Males hold certain territories, females come to them for mating. Females come, because males hold good resourses.
PTM predicts which female will go to which male.
Females go to territory that is best for them, not the best absolute territory. Don't want to share best territory with many females.
Female reproductive success for female 1 increases as quality of territory increases.
Female 1 also increase as quality of territory increases, but best productive for female is same at second least first female.
Predicts when it is better for female to go to less quality territory, or share with another female. |
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Term
|
Definition
Males want to mate with everything, females must protect for best females.
Selection arms race males against males and males against females. |
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Term
| Sexual Conflict: Infanticide |
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Definition
| Drive for procreation causes infanticide to get partner into reproduction |
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Term
|
Definition
Competition of sperms to fertilize gamete.
Sperm can cooperate and help each other over then sperm of another male. |
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Term
| Sexual Conflict: Sexual Coercion |
|
Definition
Males instead of competition, choice; force sex on female. Does not exclude other males from copulation
Should be thought of as a third type of sexual selection (affects differential access to mates)
Males expend less energy: no secondary sex characteristics. |
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Term
| Sexual Coercion (Cost to females) |
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Definition
Physical Injury
Time, Energy, Resources
Loss of Choice |
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Term
Sexual Coercion (Cost to females)
-Physical Injury |
|
Definition
Suffer greater sexual harassment in multistallion bands
Induce abortion |
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Term
Sexual Coercion (Cost to females)
-Time, Energy, Resources |
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Definition
Male hang around resource to forcefully copulate
Cost energy to resist |
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Term
Sexual Coercion (Cost to females)
-Loss of Choice |
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Definition
| Males block females from mating with other males. |
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Term
| Sexual Coercion: Female Counter tactics |
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Definition
Sexual swellings/oestrous advertisment
-Signal to male to show to males when time to copulate. Forceful copulation limited to a certain period.
Male "friends"
-Preferentially stick is particular males, but do not copulate with them necessarily. May mate at some point. Male is probably not an alpha male
Even after copulation, fertilization not guaranteed. |
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Term
| Sexual Coercion: Male Avoidance |
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Definition
Females avoid males completely.
Most aggressive behaviour avoided by females.
Females tend to aggregate when males are around, even when females do not like spending time together. |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
| Parental Care Model: Cost Vs. Benefits |
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Definition
Each parent has finite amount of time and energy to allocate to all offspring they are possibly going to have in their lifetime.
Don't know number of resources or quality |
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Term
Sexual Conflict over Parental Care: Males vs. Females:
How much investment do each put into their offspring? |
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Definition
| Differences in environment and social structure |
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Term
| Sexual Conflict over Parental Care: Males vs. Females: Frigatebird |
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Definition
Bi-parent care (common in bird species).
Care measured in feeding rate
When female without male: same total amount of total care given to offspring as when there was male. Female increased rate to compensate for loss of male.
-Indicates that female could have given higher level of care when male is there, why?
Male |
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Term
Sexual Conflict over Parental Care: Males vs. Females: Frigatebird
Why female feeding rate not at maximum all the time? |
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Definition
Gives care only up to a certain total amount.
Female withholds amount so that male makes up for it. Otherwise she holds resources to devote to other things. |
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Term
|
Definition
| What parent does for the offspring to increase offspring fitness |
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Term
| What is Parental Care:Feeding |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What is Parental Care: Protection |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What is Parental Care: Transport |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What is Parental Care: Teaching |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What is Parental Care: Maintenance. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Parental care: precocial young |
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Definition
Salmon: Never see their parents
Do not have parental care, or very little |
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Term
| Parental care: altricial young |
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Definition
Born helpless, unless they receive parental care.
Would not reach age of reproduction |
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Term
| Parental care: Why in some species and not others |
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Definition
| Parental care is hugely costly. |
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Term
| Parental care: Why not all precocial young species if less energy expended? |
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Definition
Cost vs. benefits:
Differ because of different species in different environment.
High benefit: Care
Low benefit: No care
High cost: No care
Low cost: care
Not a clean dichotomy always: Can have many offspring, then those that survive fend for themselves.
Few offspring: parents tend to show care.
Usually benefits need to vastly outweigh the costs. |
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Term
| Environment: Where parent care may evolve. |
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Definition
| k-selection and r-selection |
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Term
|
Definition
Species that live in constant predictable environment.
Individuals as long as they live past a very short time period in life period are larger, longer lifespan.
Population at capacity
Perhaps larger individuals. |
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Term
| K-selection: Selection pressure |
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Definition
| Because there is so many living, there is intense INTRAspecies competition |
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Term
|
Definition
To enable offspring to survive, choose Quality.
A lot of investment is fewer offspring to get past initial life period
Quality: few, but well prepared offspring.
Strength, knowledge
Benefits far outweigh costs. |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Short lifespan of individuals
Usually smaller individuals |
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Term
| R-selection: Selection Pressure |
|
Definition
Low survivor ship of individuals
Lots of individuals born and dying due to unpredictable environment, predation |
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Term
|
Definition
Quantity: Many cheap offspring, some will survive to reproduction age by chance alone.
Cost greater than benefit due to variable environemnt |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| No Parental Care, Uniparental Care, Biparental Care |
|
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Term
| Types of Care System: No Parental care |
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Definition
Most fish species
Many invertebrates, some fish, reptiles & amphibians |
|
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Term
| Types of Care System: Uniparental care |
|
Definition
Almost always one sex in species
Fish: Almost always male
Mammal: Almost always female
Many mammals, some invertebrates, fish, reptiles, amphibians and birds |
|
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Term
| Types of Care System: Biparental Care |
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Definition
| 90% of bird species, some mammals, fish |
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Term
| What determines parental care system? |
|
Definition
Williams principle shows different patterns of parental care system.
Have finite amount of total care to give to all offspring |
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Term
|
Definition
Investment in current offspring(s) comes at cost of future offspring(s)
Whats best for the individuals in that species for their lifetime reproductive success. |
|
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Term
| Williams principle: Lifetime Reproductive Success (LRS) |
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Definition
LRS= P(RE) + F(SE)
P(RE): Present success
F(SE): Future success |
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Term
Williams principle: Present success (P)
P is a function of what you are giving to your present offspring. P(RE) |
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Definition
| Reproduction Effort (RE): What parents at a given period with current offspring are giving to said offspring. |
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Term
Williams principle: Future success (F)
F is a function of what you have to give your future offspring (your own growth and survival). F(SE) |
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Definition
| Somatic Effort (SE): Energy a parent reserves for itself (parental upkeep) to benefit future offspring |
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Term
Peter's Fish: Show a mouth brooding couple (male and female) a tank full of females
(part I) |
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Definition
Result: Male start thinking about future offspring.
Changed perception of male of future breeding chances. |
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Term
Male Desertion in Mouth Brooding St. Peter's Fish: Balshine And Earn
(part I)
(male) |
|
Definition
Basic condition: Males usually stick around in normal situation
When tank full of males: Not much difference
When tank full of females shown: Increase in males that desert pair female |
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Term
When tank full of females shown: Increase in males that desert pair female. Why?
(part I) |
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Definition
| Increased the cost of male providing with female parental care. |
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Term
Male Desertion in Mouth Brooding St. Peter's Fish: Balshine And Earn
(part I)
(female) |
|
Definition
Basic Condition: Females stick around in normal situation mostly
Why shown tank of males: females tend to dessert, but not as high rate as males. |
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Term
When shown tank of males: females tend to dessert, but not as high rate as males. Why?
(part I) |
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Definition
| Increased cost of parental care with male when compared to the potential cost of future offspring. |
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Term
| Male Desertion in Mouth Brooding St. Peter's Fish: Balshine And Earn (part II) |
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Definition
| Manipulate benefits of parental care to present offspring: Presented females with males of different bucal cavity (mouth) size. |
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Term
Peter's Fish: (part II)
Females |
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Definition
| Bucal size did not matter for females. Females stuck around, even when given large sizes. |
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Term
Peter's Fish: (part II)
Males |
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Definition
| When male has small mouth compared to female, then a lot of desertion. |
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Term
| Does sex effect parental care? |
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Definition
| Depends on sex ratio or specifically operation sex ratio |
|
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Term
| Does sex effect parental care: Clutten-Brokck |
|
Definition
Red deer have dominance hierarchy.
Larger (healthier) females are higher in the dominance hierarchy.
Females that are higher in dominance hierarchy tend to have males, whereas females in lower hierarchy tend to have females. |
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Term
| Male Desertion in Mouth Brooding St. Peter's Fish: Balshine And Earn (part I) |
|
Definition
| Manipulated the costs in giving parental care |
|
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Term
| How Much Care: Differential Allocation of Parental Care in Response to Sexy MATE by Female Blue Tits |
|
Definition
Female pairs with UV reduced male compared to paired to Non darkened male:
Females give a lot less care. Chicks leave the nest smaller than chicks in control. |
|
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Term
| How Much Care: Differential Allocation of Parental Care in Response to Sexy MATE by Female Blue Tits, why? |
|
Definition
Perception of male is changed by experimenter. Darken UV relfective spot.
Mother changes behavior, because believe that male has poor genes. |
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Term
Parental Investment Theory (PI)
-RL Trivers |
|
Definition
How much to give to the present vs. how much given to future.
When is there switchpoint?
Anything that the parent does to increase the present offspring from surviving decreases the future offspring from surviving.
Continue to parent until the present benefit is greater than the future cost. |
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Term
| Parental Investment Theory (PI): Hamilton's Rule |
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Definition
Benefit is related to how related the invidividual is to you that you are helping out
Natural Selection favours PI when r * b > c
R=50%
r=coefficient of relatedness. |
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Term
| Parental Investment Theory (PI): Weening Model |
|
Definition
When mother has give birth, as long as lactating, cannot reproduce.
What point does the switch occur?
When lactation is no longer beneficial, becomes more beneficial to give to new offspring
But from the offspring perspective: Sibling carries only half your genetic information, therefore original offspring wants more mother's help than other offspring.
Mother is equally related to all offspring by 50%, mother gives to present offspring as much as her can.
Parent has good idea when time to switch to offspring.
But original offspring wants more mother care given than to other offspring. |
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Term
| Fill in after weening (lecture 7) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
If not 100% related, can only be 50% related.
Want more food that siblings. |
|
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Term
| Siblicide: Do parents encourage siblicide? |
|
Definition
| Yes. Cross foster BFB and MB. Parents do not have kin recognition. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
"if it's in my nest/territory/cave...treat it like a kin"
Remember to consider:
efficieny
trade offs
However, rule of thumb vulnerable to exploitation. |
|
|
Term
| Kin Recognision: Why not more? |
|
Definition
Costly. Takes up a alot of brain space.
See it in species where able to recognise individual is extremely beneficial. |
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|
Term
Non Kin Recognision: Exploitation
Brood Paracitism. |
|
Definition
When animal exploit the parental care of individual other than parents.
eg: cowbirds, cuckoos.
Don't need to expend energy to care for offspring, but offspring are taken care of. |
|
|
Term
| Brood Paracitism: Cowbirds and Junco Parents |
|
Definition
Cowbirds dump eggs onto junco. Cowbirds are bigger and hatch earlier thus better fight for food.
Recognision still not found even when matured. |
|
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Term
| Brood Paracitism Types: Non Obligate` |
|
Definition
When they can get away with it, they dump and eggs into anothers nest.
Lay eggs in own and conspecific nests
eg Bank swallow. |
|
|
Term
| Brood Paracitism Types: Obligate |
|
Definition
Eg cuckoo
Cuckoo parents cannot take care of own offspring.
Completely rely on other dumping eggs on their species nest. |
|
|
Term
| Why not evolve ability to recognize individual |
|
Definition
| Brood paracistim doesn't occur at high enough rate for there to be a selection pressure to eveolve kin recognstion. |
|
|
Term
| Male Desertion in Mouth Brooding St. Peter's Fish: Balshine And Earn (part I) |
|
Definition
| Manipulated the costs in giving parental care |
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