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Animal Behavior:Chapter 6
foraging and migration
134
Psychology
Undergraduate 3
10/10/2012

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Term
Cost-benefit-analysis of foraging
Definition
if time and energy cost of obtaining food outweighs the benefits (protein and energy intake) to be gained, the animal will seek out food that is easier to obtain

Energy intake must outweigh energy output or the animal will not survive
Term
Cost-Benefit Analysis: Starving animal vs Well-feed animal
Definition
starving animals are less picky about the food they are given while well-fed animals are more selective and have preferences
Term
example of coevolution
Definition
BEES and FLOWERS

flowers are naturally selected to be maximumly reflective in the UV wavelength to attract bees. bees see these wavelengths and pollinate

they need each other to survive
Term
Explain how human consumer behavior can aid in understanding cost-benefit analysis of foraging in non-human animals?
Definition
individual with dire need for food but little money will behave differently than a person who is well fed and wealthy

minimize cost ($ spent) while try to maximize amount of food in cart
Term
What is a search image?
Definition
with increasing experience at finding on kind of food, seeker forms a clearer picture of what they're looking for and it becomes easier for the animal to spot its food
Term
Example of a search image: Chicks
Definition
some chicks were better at finding grains or rice on a contrasting background and it was harder for them to see the rice on the camouflage background. with experience, they were finding rice in the camouflaged background just a quickly as the contrasting background
Term
Opposing viewpoints of Search Image Hypothesis
Definition
when looking for hidden food items, foragers may take more time to carefully look at the items rather than to form an actual search image
Term
Boblink quails
Definition
reduced their hunting speed as their lab prey increasingly blended into the background
Term
3 proposed ways that animal's diet changes
Definition
1. create search image

2. animals take longer to find food that is hidden

3. both a search image is formed and there is a change in the search rate
Term
the decision on what to eat depends...
Definition
on the availability of preferred foods
Term
howler monkeys and food selection
Definition
eat mostly leaves

good at avoiding toxic leaves and leaves low in nutritional value

seek out rare, more nutrious leaves that take longer to find (smaller, younger leaves are preferred)
Term
What is a generalist? a specialist?
Definition
generalist: omnivores that can eat anything

specialist: can only eat certain foods
Term
What are the advantages and disadvantages of being a generalist?
Definition
-can switch from one food type to another depending on availability

-takes less time to find food but it takes longer for them to capture it because they're not specialized
Term
What are the advantages and disadvantages of being a specialist?
Definition
-very efficient at catching/finding food

-can only eat certain foods so cannot adapt to availability
Term
Example of a generalist
Definition
earthworms

rats

bears

wolves
Term
3 Examples of specialists
Definition
koalas eat and digest eucalyptus leaves that are poisonous to other animals

panda has evolved a second thumb to strip bamboo

anteaters have long sticky tongues to eat out of termite mounds
Term
Example of an optimality model
Definition
starlings catch worms and store them in their beak to give to their young

optimality model: starlings should carry the number of worms that would not only feed all of their young but not too many so that all the worms fall out of their beak
Term
What does an optimality model of foraging predict?
Definition
the animal will use a foraging method that will not waste too much energy and will maximize the amount of food that it finds
Term
Explain how Kacelnick’s (1984) experiment supports an optimality model
Definition
-trained starlings to get worms + then manipulated the rate at which the worms appeared

-load size increased with an increased distance of the tray from the nest

COST-BENEFIT MODEL
Term
How do squirrels learn how to crack open nuts?
Definition
trial and error
Term
how do oystercatchers (birds) learn how to open up clam shells?
Definition
they learn the technique from their parents
Term
Example of an animal that is a CULTIVATOR
Definition
leaf cutter ants

cut leaves, bring back to nest, chew them up, and put them on top of fungus to grow
Term
Cultivation in prairie dogs
Definition
they pull out grass that they don't eat so that the grass that they like will grow
Term
2 ways that animals store food
Definition
1. fat reserves

2. take food back to nest and hoard
Term
Advantages and disadvantages of storing food into fat reserves in body
Definition
Advantages: seals and penguins require excess fat to survive cold environments

Disadvantages: birds having excess fat is costly because it may impair their ability to fly
Term
squirrels + hiding their nuts
Definition
-squirrels bury their nuts during the summer so that they can eat them and survive during the winter

-dig holes and store nuts around their nest site

-store nuts in large amounts in few locations
Term
What is the BENEFIT in the cost-benefit-analysis of foraging?
Definition
Energy and protein
Term
What is the COST in the cost-benefit-analysis of foraging?
Definition
energy expended
Term
Co-evolution: bees and flowers
Definition
bees adapted to respond to UV radiation and flowers have adapted to reflect UV light
Term
Acacia plants + ants: Co-evolution
Definition
Acacia plants have hollow thorns and pores that secrete nectar. Ants nests in these pores and feed on the nectar. Ants defend the plants against herbivores

SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP
Term
why does an animal leave a certain area or patch?
Definition
1. Site degradation: lack of resources

2. distance to new patch: chipmunks stay at degrading area if food patch is too far away
Term
Moving to another patch: Chipmunks
Definition
chipmunks stay at a degrading area if the other food patch is too far away
Term
Moving to another patch: Pikas
Definition
feed on mediocre sites close to a burrow for safety
Term
Search image: define
Definition
learn to find food faster with experience
Term
Search image: quail
Definition
search time increases when prey become closer to background color
Term
Search image: quail
Definition
search time increases when prey become closer to background color
Term
What is an Optimal Diet Model?
Definition
each food has a particular energy value, encounter rate, and handling time

mathematical model to predict food choice
Term
variables used in an OPTIMAL DIET MODEL
Definition
1. energy value

2. encounter rate

3. handling time
Term
Assumptions of the Optimal Diet Model
Definition
1. can measure prey-type with some standard form of currency (like calories)

2. foragers can't simultaneously handle one kind of food and search for another

3. prey is encountered sequentially

4. foragers are designed to maximize rate of energy intake
Term
Kacelnik: sterlings and load size
Definition
trained sterlings to get mealworms from tray (could manipulate encounter rate)

-load size increased as the distance of tray from the nest increased

sterling selected the load size that maximized the net rate of food delivery to chicks
Term
Zach: Crows and sea snails
Definition
Crows dropped sea snails from heights to crack shell

-birds selected the heaviest snails (crack easier)

-17 feet was minimum distance necessary to break shell
Term
Omnivores + encounter rates
Definition
omnivores have short encounter rates but take more time to handle
Term
specialists + handling time
Definition
short handling time but can't switch food types

ex: panda's thumb to eat bamboo
Term
How do predators and prey co-evolve?
Definition
coevolve to be able to defeat others' survival strategy
Term
How do snakes HANDLE prey?
Definition
inject toxin
Term
How do some fish HANDLE prey?
Definition
electric shock
Term
How do LIONS handle prey?
Definition
Sever spinal cord or suffocate
Term
How do dogs HANDLE prey?
Definition
bite and shake
Term
Define: primary defense
Definition
built into animal

ex: turtle's shells
porcupine quills
Term
Define: Secondary Defense
Definition
occurs when animal is faced with predator

ex: running
mobbing
etc
Term
List: 4 primary defenses
Definition
1. Camouflage

2. Disruptive coloration

3. warning displays

4. mimicry

5. living in groups
Term
Camouflage: peppered moth
Definition
changed to a darker color after industrial revolution
Term
Camouflage: penguins
Definition
black and white colors

cannot be seen below because blend in with snow
Term
List: 3 examples of animals that camouflage
Definition
Penguins

peppered moths
Term
Camouflage: Cuttlefish and chameleons
Definition
can change colors quickly
Term
How do cryptic cephalopod camouflage?
Definition
skin contains chomatophones (cells that contain pigment)

can be expanded to place color all over skin
Term
chromatophores
Definition
cells that contain pigment and can expand to change animal's color
Term
Example of animal that has "Disruptive coloration"
Definition
Striped pattern of zebra makes detection of body contours difficult for predators
Term
Aposematism
Definition
warning displays
Distinct structures/colors that signal animal is poisonous, venomous, or dangerous

(ex: skunk sprays, butterflies have gross taste and coloration)
Term
Warning Displays
Definition
distinct structures or colors tht signal animal is poisonous, venomous, or dangerous
Term
Examples of 2 animals that give warning displays
Definition
1. skunks

2. monarch butterflies
Term
Golden Dart Frog: What kind of primary defense?
Definition
Warning Displays

very poisonous

potent neurotoxin on skin

very bright in color
Term
Mimicry
Definition
harmless animal imitates a dangerous animal
Term
List: 3 types of mimicry
Definition
1. mimicry

2. martensian

3. batesian
Term
martensian mimicry
Definition
prey species resembles something dangerous to predator

ex: caterpiller that resembles snake, eyes on wings, etc.
Term
what is an example of martensian mimicry?
Definition
caterpiller that resembles snake
Term
Batesian mimicry
Definition
palatable animal evolves to resemble an unpalatable one

ex: arizona corn snakes, stripes = poison
Term
what is an example of batesian mimicry?
Definition
arizona corn snakes, stripes = poison
Term
mullerian mimicry
Definition
2 unpallatable insects come to resemble each other

ex: viceroy butterfly and monarch

both unpalatable and look alike

benefit from generalization
Term
List: Animal's secondary defenses
Definition
1. fight

2. flight

3. freeze
Term
Flight: example
Definition
Thompson gazelle and stotting (jump-running)

exhibited to cheetahs but not to wild dogs
Term
Piloerection is an example of....
Definition
a secondary defense: flight
Term
What animal uses secondary defense: piloerection?
Definition
cats

goose bumps to puff up appearance
Term
flagging behavior is an example of...
Definition
secondary defense: flight
Term
flagging
Definition
birds that behave as if injured to attract predator from young
Term
what are some examples of flight?
Definition
-animals attempt to hide (burrow, tall weeds, etc)

-moths have evolved body hairs that can detect sound waves emited by cats

-lizards evolved body parts that if grabbed falls off and grows back
Term
Arctic musk ox: secondary defense
Definition
FIGHT

form circle to protect young
Term
examples of animals that use Chemicals and toxins as a secondary defense
Definition
-striped skunk can spray up to 6 meters

-bombarder beetles; 2 chemicals combined that are explosively hot

-hedgehog that eats toads and put toxins into skin
Term
Using chemicals and toxins for defense is an example of....
Definition
FIGHT (secondary defense)
Term
Examples of freezing as a secondary defense
Definition
-deer will leave fawns when threatened because fawns will freeze

-hyena young do this too

-opossum plays dead; becomes unconscious "tonic immobility"
Term
Tonic immobility
Definition
Opossum plays dead and becomes unconscious as a secondary defense mechanism (Freeze)
Term
Evolutionary Arms Race
Definition
-prey evolve tactics to avoid predation

-predators develop improvements in methods
Term
Example of Evolutionary Arms Race
Definition
Canadian lynx and snowshow hare

lynx populations = highest the years just following years with high hare population

Hare population controls lynx population
Term
how do predators pick their prey?
Definition
prey selection depends on whether they are a specialist or generalist

usually prey on weak, sick, and young
Term
most common methods that predators use to detect prey... (3)
Definition
1. vision

2. hearing

3. smelling
Term
echolocation
Definition
use echoes of vocalization to navigate enironment
Term
how do sand scorpions find their prey?
Definition
vibration sensors in legs that are sensitive to movements in sand
Term
how do rattlesnakes find their prey?
Definition
heat censors near nose

can detect body heat
Term
In general, why don’t birds simply stay in the warmer areas of the world? Why do they migrate?
Definition
better weather

food availability
Term
List: means by which animals navigate and find their way when migrating?
Definition
1. sun compass

2. star position

3. geomagnetic cues

4. landmarks
Term
What is a photoperiod and what does it have to do with migratory behavior in birds? Explain.
Definition
photoperiod: length of time sun shines during day

decreasing amount of light stimulates pituitary gland in birds brain to excrete hormones to prepare bird for migration
Term
What kinds of studies have been performed that demonstrate that some species of birds can use a sun compass to navigate?
Definition
homing pigeons

frosted lens over their eyes so they can see only 3 feet in front of them. released 12 miles away from home and were able to still find home using the sun
Term
What kinds of studies have been performed that demonstrate that some species of birds can use the earth’s magnetic field to navigate?
Definition
attached magnets to back of bird + it flew in random patterns

gull flying in darkness without stars, still flew south
Term
1. Some mammals have seasonal migrations, but most do not. What are the reasons why non-migrators stay in one place?
Definition
hibernation
Term
What causes the legendary journeys that lemmings take every few years?
Definition
every 5 years

when population is too high and there isnt enough vegetation

migrate in random directions, get eaten
Term
What two mammal species have the longest migrations? What benefits do they obtain from such efforts?
Definition
1. california gray whales: migrate from alaska to california every year.
one location is for reproduction and the other is for food

2. elephant seal: migrate twice a year
Term
territoriality
Definition
agonism asscited with space and location

often used to secure resources
Term
territory
Definition
area animal defends

often within animal's home range
Term
core area
Definition
space within territory that animal spends majority of time (ex: den, nest, etc)
Term
when is agonistic behavior higher?
Definition
higher when competition is over mates than food
Term
Territoriality: Huntington
Definition
-defensive behavior is confined to territory

-area is exclusively used by residents

-defense involves warnings, threats, displays, aggression

-intruders behave submissively to resident

-familiar intruders are not typically attacked
Term
Who usually wins the disputes? By size?
Definition
if equallymatched in size, resident wins

if unequal, larger wins
Term
Disputes will not occur when...
Definition
population densities are low

resources plentiful
Term
what happens when a resident dies?
Definition
a new one moves in
Term
what are new birds tht move in called?
Definition
settlers
Term
what is a floater?
Definition
new bird that arrive to territory after acceptable habitats are filled

wait for resident to leave so it can move in
Term
List: 2 ways that animals establish boundaries
Definition
1. scent marking

2. aggressive displays
Term
scent marking
Definition
chemical marks at boundaries

urine, feces, secretions from scent glands

common in mammals, not used by birds
Term
establishing boundaries: aggressive displays
Definition
gestures, body posture, sounds, actions
Term
Example of scent marking in cats
Definition
spray vertical surfaces
Term
"pasting"
Definition
hyenas have glands that excrete scent to establish boundaries
Term
most basic "aggressive display" to establish boundaries
Definition
increase size
Term
when do animals establish boundaries
Definition
-animal adopts territory if it makes resources more dependable
Term
Defending territories: Gold-Winged Sunbird
Definition
increased nectar in flowers in territory = more aggression

increase nectar = more energy

less likely to defend when dont have a lot of energy
Term
when resources are plentiful for everyone, territoriality...
Definition
decreases
Term
submission displays
Definition
tell displayer will not compete for resources
Term
Evolutionary Stable Strategy (ESS)
Definition
way of behaving that gradually becomes the dominant strategy in a population of animals over time

If all animals are aggressive or submissive, species would not be stable
Term
Evolutionary stable strategy: What would happen if all animals in a population were submissive or aggresive?
Definition
unstable

50% deaths/loss

evenly matched opponents
Term
Burgeois Strategy
Definition
optimal EES

variation of mixed strategy; be a hawk in your own territory and be a dove elsewhere
Term
agonistic behavior
Definition
aggression not related to predator-prey relations
Term
examples of agonistic behavior
Definition
fighting
threats
submission
chases
defensive territorial displays
marking
Term
when does agonistic behavior usually occur?
Definition
usually involves males of same species in competition over resources
Term
what is the most common type of competition?
Definition
over food
Term
what is the most aggressive species?
Definition
hyenas

aggression starts as a cubwha
Term
Define: intraspecific predation
Definition
cannibalism
Term
intraspecific predation: why?
Definition
provides food and eliminates competition
Term
intraspecific predation: examples:
Definition
embryonic sharks will eat siblings in womb

adults will kill competitors' offspring (ie gulls)
Term
why do sharks kill each other in the womb?
Definition
Icebox hypothesis

extra embryos are stocked to feed 1 that is strongest
Term
competitive exclusion
Definition
two similar species thrive in separate locations, but one may exclude other when they are placed together

doesn't always occur if they can find different niches
Term
competitive exclusion: example
Definition
songbirds split up tree into territories

can form alliances where there is an overlap
Term
4 ways aggression increases reproductive success
Definition
1. helps obtain a mate

2. wards against mate copulating with others

3. increases an individual's change of fertilization

4. reproduces offspring's competition
Term
how does an animal assess breeding competitors?
Definition
1. size each other up

fights do not occur if they are not both the same size. smaller one backs down

ex: Red stag males = roars; animal with smaller roar withdraws. if rawrs are equal, they will walk together to assess size, strength, etc. if neither backs down, rutting occurs
Term
how does the Red Stag assess its breeding competitors?
Definition
Red stag males = roars; animal with smaller roar withdraws. if rawrs are equal, they will walk together to assess size, strength, etc. if neither backs down, rutting occurs
Term
Cost/Benefit for competition
Definition
1. reproductive gain must be greater than the fighting costs

2. value of the resource may dictate the costs that an animal may be willing to assume
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