Term
| Cost-benefit-analysis of foraging |
|
Definition
if time and energy cost of obtaining food outweighs the benefits (protein and energy intake) to be gained, the animal will seek out food that is easier to obtain
Energy intake must outweigh energy output or the animal will not survive |
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Term
| Cost-Benefit Analysis: Starving animal vs Well-feed animal |
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Definition
| starving animals are less picky about the food they are given while well-fed animals are more selective and have preferences |
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|
Term
|
Definition
BEES and FLOWERS
flowers are naturally selected to be maximumly reflective in the UV wavelength to attract bees. bees see these wavelengths and pollinate
they need each other to survive |
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|
Term
| Explain how human consumer behavior can aid in understanding cost-benefit analysis of foraging in non-human animals? |
|
Definition
individual with dire need for food but little money will behave differently than a person who is well fed and wealthy
minimize cost ($ spent) while try to maximize amount of food in cart |
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Term
|
Definition
| with increasing experience at finding on kind of food, seeker forms a clearer picture of what they're looking for and it becomes easier for the animal to spot its food |
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Term
| Example of a search image: Chicks |
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Definition
| some chicks were better at finding grains or rice on a contrasting background and it was harder for them to see the rice on the camouflage background. with experience, they were finding rice in the camouflaged background just a quickly as the contrasting background |
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Term
| Opposing viewpoints of Search Image Hypothesis |
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Definition
| when looking for hidden food items, foragers may take more time to carefully look at the items rather than to form an actual search image |
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Term
|
Definition
| reduced their hunting speed as their lab prey increasingly blended into the background |
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Term
| 3 proposed ways that animal's diet changes |
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Definition
1. create search image
2. animals take longer to find food that is hidden
3. both a search image is formed and there is a change in the search rate |
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Term
| the decision on what to eat depends... |
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Definition
| on the availability of preferred foods |
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Term
| howler monkeys and food selection |
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Definition
eat mostly leaves
good at avoiding toxic leaves and leaves low in nutritional value
seek out rare, more nutrious leaves that take longer to find (smaller, younger leaves are preferred) |
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Term
| What is a generalist? a specialist? |
|
Definition
generalist: omnivores that can eat anything
specialist: can only eat certain foods |
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Term
| What are the advantages and disadvantages of being a generalist? |
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Definition
-can switch from one food type to another depending on availability
-takes less time to find food but it takes longer for them to capture it because they're not specialized |
|
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Term
| What are the advantages and disadvantages of being a specialist? |
|
Definition
-very efficient at catching/finding food
-can only eat certain foods so cannot adapt to availability |
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|
Term
|
Definition
earthworms
rats
bears
wolves |
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Term
| 3 Examples of specialists |
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Definition
koalas eat and digest eucalyptus leaves that are poisonous to other animals
panda has evolved a second thumb to strip bamboo
anteaters have long sticky tongues to eat out of termite mounds |
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Term
| Example of an optimality model |
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Definition
starlings catch worms and store them in their beak to give to their young
optimality model: starlings should carry the number of worms that would not only feed all of their young but not too many so that all the worms fall out of their beak |
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Term
| What does an optimality model of foraging predict? |
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Definition
| the animal will use a foraging method that will not waste too much energy and will maximize the amount of food that it finds |
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Term
| Explain how Kacelnick’s (1984) experiment supports an optimality model |
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Definition
-trained starlings to get worms + then manipulated the rate at which the worms appeared
-load size increased with an increased distance of the tray from the nest
COST-BENEFIT MODEL |
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|
Term
| How do squirrels learn how to crack open nuts? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| how do oystercatchers (birds) learn how to open up clam shells? |
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Definition
| they learn the technique from their parents |
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Term
| Example of an animal that is a CULTIVATOR |
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Definition
leaf cutter ants
cut leaves, bring back to nest, chew them up, and put them on top of fungus to grow |
|
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Term
| Cultivation in prairie dogs |
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Definition
| they pull out grass that they don't eat so that the grass that they like will grow |
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Term
| 2 ways that animals store food |
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Definition
1. fat reserves
2. take food back to nest and hoard |
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Term
| Advantages and disadvantages of storing food into fat reserves in body |
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Definition
Advantages: seals and penguins require excess fat to survive cold environments
Disadvantages: birds having excess fat is costly because it may impair their ability to fly |
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Term
| squirrels + hiding their nuts |
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Definition
-squirrels bury their nuts during the summer so that they can eat them and survive during the winter
-dig holes and store nuts around their nest site
-store nuts in large amounts in few locations |
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|
Term
| What is the BENEFIT in the cost-benefit-analysis of foraging? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the COST in the cost-benefit-analysis of foraging? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Co-evolution: bees and flowers |
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Definition
| bees adapted to respond to UV radiation and flowers have adapted to reflect UV light |
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Term
| Acacia plants + ants: Co-evolution |
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Definition
Acacia plants have hollow thorns and pores that secrete nectar. Ants nests in these pores and feed on the nectar. Ants defend the plants against herbivores
SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP |
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Term
| why does an animal leave a certain area or patch? |
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Definition
1. Site degradation: lack of resources
2. distance to new patch: chipmunks stay at degrading area if food patch is too far away |
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Term
| Moving to another patch: Chipmunks |
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Definition
| chipmunks stay at a degrading area if the other food patch is too far away |
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Term
| Moving to another patch: Pikas |
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Definition
| feed on mediocre sites close to a burrow for safety |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| learn to find food faster with experience |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| search time increases when prey become closer to background color |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| search time increases when prey become closer to background color |
|
|
Term
| What is an Optimal Diet Model? |
|
Definition
each food has a particular energy value, encounter rate, and handling time
mathematical model to predict food choice |
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Term
| variables used in an OPTIMAL DIET MODEL |
|
Definition
1. energy value
2. encounter rate
3. handling time |
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|
Term
| Assumptions of the Optimal Diet Model |
|
Definition
1. can measure prey-type with some standard form of currency (like calories)
2. foragers can't simultaneously handle one kind of food and search for another
3. prey is encountered sequentially
4. foragers are designed to maximize rate of energy intake |
|
|
Term
| Kacelnik: sterlings and load size |
|
Definition
trained sterlings to get mealworms from tray (could manipulate encounter rate)
-load size increased as the distance of tray from the nest increased
sterling selected the load size that maximized the net rate of food delivery to chicks |
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Term
| Zach: Crows and sea snails |
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Definition
Crows dropped sea snails from heights to crack shell
-birds selected the heaviest snails (crack easier)
-17 feet was minimum distance necessary to break shell |
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Term
| Omnivores + encounter rates |
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Definition
| omnivores have short encounter rates but take more time to handle |
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Term
| specialists + handling time |
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Definition
short handling time but can't switch food types
ex: panda's thumb to eat bamboo |
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|
Term
| How do predators and prey co-evolve? |
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Definition
| coevolve to be able to defeat others' survival strategy |
|
|
Term
| How do snakes HANDLE prey? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How do some fish HANDLE prey? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How do LIONS handle prey? |
|
Definition
| Sever spinal cord or suffocate |
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|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
built into animal
ex: turtle's shells
porcupine quills |
|
|
Term
| Define: Secondary Defense |
|
Definition
occurs when animal is faced with predator
ex: running
mobbing
etc |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Camouflage
2. Disruptive coloration
3. warning displays
4. mimicry
5. living in groups |
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|
Term
| Camouflage: peppered moth |
|
Definition
| changed to a darker color after industrial revolution |
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|
Term
|
Definition
black and white colors
cannot be seen below because blend in with snow |
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|
Term
| List: 3 examples of animals that camouflage |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Camouflage: Cuttlefish and chameleons |
|
Definition
| can change colors quickly |
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|
Term
| How do cryptic cephalopod camouflage? |
|
Definition
skin contains chomatophones (cells that contain pigment)
can be expanded to place color all over skin |
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Term
|
Definition
| cells that contain pigment and can expand to change animal's color |
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Term
| Example of animal that has "Disruptive coloration" |
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Definition
| Striped pattern of zebra makes detection of body contours difficult for predators |
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Term
|
Definition
warning displays
Distinct structures/colors that signal animal is poisonous, venomous, or dangerous
(ex: skunk sprays, butterflies have gross taste and coloration) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| distinct structures or colors tht signal animal is poisonous, venomous, or dangerous |
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|
Term
| Examples of 2 animals that give warning displays |
|
Definition
1. skunks
2. monarch butterflies |
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|
Term
| Golden Dart Frog: What kind of primary defense? |
|
Definition
Warning Displays
very poisonous
potent neurotoxin on skin
very bright in color |
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Term
|
Definition
| harmless animal imitates a dangerous animal |
|
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Term
|
Definition
1. mimicry
2. martensian
3. batesian |
|
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Term
|
Definition
prey species resembles something dangerous to predator
ex: caterpiller that resembles snake, eyes on wings, etc. |
|
|
Term
| what is an example of martensian mimicry? |
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Definition
| caterpiller that resembles snake |
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Term
|
Definition
palatable animal evolves to resemble an unpalatable one
ex: arizona corn snakes, stripes = poison |
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|
Term
| what is an example of batesian mimicry? |
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Definition
| arizona corn snakes, stripes = poison |
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Term
|
Definition
2 unpallatable insects come to resemble each other
ex: viceroy butterfly and monarch
both unpalatable and look alike
benefit from generalization |
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|
Term
| List: Animal's secondary defenses |
|
Definition
1. fight
2. flight
3. freeze |
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|
Term
|
Definition
Thompson gazelle and stotting (jump-running)
exhibited to cheetahs but not to wild dogs |
|
|
Term
| Piloerection is an example of.... |
|
Definition
| a secondary defense: flight |
|
|
Term
| What animal uses secondary defense: piloerection? |
|
Definition
cats
goose bumps to puff up appearance |
|
|
Term
| flagging behavior is an example of... |
|
Definition
| secondary defense: flight |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| birds that behave as if injured to attract predator from young |
|
|
Term
| what are some examples of flight? |
|
Definition
-animals attempt to hide (burrow, tall weeds, etc)
-moths have evolved body hairs that can detect sound waves emited by cats
-lizards evolved body parts that if grabbed falls off and grows back |
|
|
Term
| Arctic musk ox: secondary defense |
|
Definition
FIGHT
form circle to protect young |
|
|
Term
| examples of animals that use Chemicals and toxins as a secondary defense |
|
Definition
-striped skunk can spray up to 6 meters
-bombarder beetles; 2 chemicals combined that are explosively hot
-hedgehog that eats toads and put toxins into skin |
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|
Term
| Using chemicals and toxins for defense is an example of.... |
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Definition
| FIGHT (secondary defense) |
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|
Term
| Examples of freezing as a secondary defense |
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Definition
-deer will leave fawns when threatened because fawns will freeze
-hyena young do this too
-opossum plays dead; becomes unconscious "tonic immobility" |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Opossum plays dead and becomes unconscious as a secondary defense mechanism (Freeze) |
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Term
|
Definition
-prey evolve tactics to avoid predation
-predators develop improvements in methods |
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Term
| Example of Evolutionary Arms Race |
|
Definition
Canadian lynx and snowshow hare
lynx populations = highest the years just following years with high hare population
Hare population controls lynx population |
|
|
Term
| how do predators pick their prey? |
|
Definition
prey selection depends on whether they are a specialist or generalist
usually prey on weak, sick, and young |
|
|
Term
| most common methods that predators use to detect prey... (3) |
|
Definition
1. vision
2. hearing
3. smelling |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| use echoes of vocalization to navigate enironment |
|
|
Term
| how do sand scorpions find their prey? |
|
Definition
| vibration sensors in legs that are sensitive to movements in sand |
|
|
Term
| how do rattlesnakes find their prey? |
|
Definition
heat censors near nose
can detect body heat |
|
|
Term
| In general, why don’t birds simply stay in the warmer areas of the world? Why do they migrate? |
|
Definition
better weather
food availability |
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|
Term
| List: means by which animals navigate and find their way when migrating? |
|
Definition
1. sun compass
2. star position
3. geomagnetic cues
4. landmarks |
|
|
Term
| What is a photoperiod and what does it have to do with migratory behavior in birds? Explain. |
|
Definition
photoperiod: length of time sun shines during day
decreasing amount of light stimulates pituitary gland in birds brain to excrete hormones to prepare bird for migration |
|
|
Term
| What kinds of studies have been performed that demonstrate that some species of birds can use a sun compass to navigate? |
|
Definition
homing pigeons
frosted lens over their eyes so they can see only 3 feet in front of them. released 12 miles away from home and were able to still find home using the sun |
|
|
Term
| What kinds of studies have been performed that demonstrate that some species of birds can use the earth’s magnetic field to navigate? |
|
Definition
attached magnets to back of bird + it flew in random patterns
gull flying in darkness without stars, still flew south |
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|
Term
| 1. Some mammals have seasonal migrations, but most do not. What are the reasons why non-migrators stay in one place? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What causes the legendary journeys that lemmings take every few years? |
|
Definition
every 5 years
when population is too high and there isnt enough vegetation
migrate in random directions, get eaten |
|
|
Term
| What two mammal species have the longest migrations? What benefits do they obtain from such efforts? |
|
Definition
1. california gray whales: migrate from alaska to california every year.
one location is for reproduction and the other is for food
2. elephant seal: migrate twice a year |
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Term
|
Definition
agonism asscited with space and location
often used to secure resources |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
area animal defends
often within animal's home range |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| space within territory that animal spends majority of time (ex: den, nest, etc) |
|
|
Term
| when is agonistic behavior higher? |
|
Definition
| higher when competition is over mates than food |
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|
Term
| Territoriality: Huntington |
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Definition
-defensive behavior is confined to territory
-area is exclusively used by residents
-defense involves warnings, threats, displays, aggression
-intruders behave submissively to resident
-familiar intruders are not typically attacked |
|
|
Term
| Who usually wins the disputes? By size? |
|
Definition
if equallymatched in size, resident wins
if unequal, larger wins |
|
|
Term
| Disputes will not occur when... |
|
Definition
population densities are low
resources plentiful |
|
|
Term
| what happens when a resident dies? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are new birds tht move in called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
new bird that arrive to territory after acceptable habitats are filled
wait for resident to leave so it can move in |
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|
Term
| List: 2 ways that animals establish boundaries |
|
Definition
1. scent marking
2. aggressive displays |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
chemical marks at boundaries
urine, feces, secretions from scent glands
common in mammals, not used by birds |
|
|
Term
| establishing boundaries: aggressive displays |
|
Definition
| gestures, body posture, sounds, actions |
|
|
Term
| Example of scent marking in cats |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hyenas have glands that excrete scent to establish boundaries |
|
|
Term
| most basic "aggressive display" to establish boundaries |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when do animals establish boundaries |
|
Definition
| -animal adopts territory if it makes resources more dependable |
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|
Term
| Defending territories: Gold-Winged Sunbird |
|
Definition
increased nectar in flowers in territory = more aggression
increase nectar = more energy
less likely to defend when dont have a lot of energy |
|
|
Term
| when resources are plentiful for everyone, territoriality... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tell displayer will not compete for resources |
|
|
Term
| Evolutionary Stable Strategy (ESS) |
|
Definition
way of behaving that gradually becomes the dominant strategy in a population of animals over time
If all animals are aggressive or submissive, species would not be stable |
|
|
Term
| Evolutionary stable strategy: What would happen if all animals in a population were submissive or aggresive? |
|
Definition
unstable
50% deaths/loss
evenly matched opponents |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
optimal EES
variation of mixed strategy; be a hawk in your own territory and be a dove elsewhere |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| aggression not related to predator-prey relations |
|
|
Term
| examples of agonistic behavior |
|
Definition
fighting
threats
submission
chases
defensive territorial displays
marking |
|
|
Term
| when does agonistic behavior usually occur? |
|
Definition
| usually involves males of same species in competition over resources |
|
|
Term
| what is the most common type of competition? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the most aggressive species? |
|
Definition
hyenas
aggression starts as a cubwha |
|
|
Term
| Define: intraspecific predation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| intraspecific predation: why? |
|
Definition
| provides food and eliminates competition |
|
|
Term
| intraspecific predation: examples: |
|
Definition
embryonic sharks will eat siblings in womb
adults will kill competitors' offspring (ie gulls) |
|
|
Term
| why do sharks kill each other in the womb? |
|
Definition
Icebox hypothesis
extra embryos are stocked to feed 1 that is strongest |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
two similar species thrive in separate locations, but one may exclude other when they are placed together
doesn't always occur if they can find different niches |
|
|
Term
| competitive exclusion: example |
|
Definition
songbirds split up tree into territories
can form alliances where there is an overlap |
|
|
Term
| 4 ways aggression increases reproductive success |
|
Definition
1. helps obtain a mate
2. wards against mate copulating with others
3. increases an individual's change of fertilization
4. reproduces offspring's competition |
|
|
Term
| how does an animal assess breeding competitors? |
|
Definition
1. size each other up
fights do not occur if they are not both the same size. smaller one backs down
ex: Red stag males = roars; animal with smaller roar withdraws. if rawrs are equal, they will walk together to assess size, strength, etc. if neither backs down, rutting occurs |
|
|
Term
| how does the Red Stag assess its breeding competitors? |
|
Definition
| Red stag males = roars; animal with smaller roar withdraws. if rawrs are equal, they will walk together to assess size, strength, etc. if neither backs down, rutting occurs |
|
|
Term
| Cost/Benefit for competition |
|
Definition
1. reproductive gain must be greater than the fighting costs
2. value of the resource may dictate the costs that an animal may be willing to assume |
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