Palace of Knossos, Minoan 3000-1500 BCE, Crete

- Peak of Minoan culture's technical abilities seen in the Palace of Knossos; advanced engineering for their time; understood importance and necessity of sanitation and convenience.

- Developed underground water systems made from fired clay bringing fresh water into the palace for hygenic bathing, toilets, and ritual cleansing. A separate pipe flushed dirty water out into the sea.

- Wealthy culture allowed time for luxuries and aesthetic development as seen on the fresco walls and decorative architectural structures like engaged columns and hypostyle halls.

- This palace was a multi-functioning town with a centralized government, markets and residential quarters.

- Refered to as a temple, but Minoans did not build structures specifically as temples. Most sanctuaries were outdoors and constructed wherever they had epiphanies, or encounters with the gods.

Colosseum of Rome, 70-82 CE, Vaspasian and Domitian

- Culturally identifies the importance of communal gathering and pleasure-seeking in Roman culture. In order to keep the large population of Rome happy and docile they provided public events such as gladiator battles.

- This is not the only colosseum built. Romans built these all over Europe but this one in particular was built next to a pre-existing aqueduct so they could flood the stage for sea-battles. This was a multi-purpose building.

- Romans were advanced engineers who used an incredibly strong and durable material known as concrete to build structures. Due to the size of this building and the weight of the people, it would not be possible to construct it without this material.

- The Romans were also advanced diviners, or water seekers. They constructed aqueducts which were necessary to provide a constant flow of fresh water to the large population of Rome. The Colosseum would be flooded for mock military sea-battles.

- There are three levels of the Colosseum that utilize architectural styles borrowed from Greek culture. It begins with the more simple Doric order which has no base for the engaged column and a simple capital. As the levels progress they used the Ionic order for the second layer which has a base, fluted column and more decorative capital. The third level uses the Corinthian order which is highly decorative and was not commonly used in Greek architecture but definitely emphasized by the Romans.

- The construction of a colosseum makes use of two Greek amphitheatres that are facing one another with an alteration into an oval shape. This signifies that a lot of Roman architecture looked to Greek architecture for inspiration in form and decoration.

-  It is rumored that Christians were persecuted here but this is not true. There were subterranean chambers which held wild animals and gladiators, or slaves used for the battles at the Colosseum.

- There was a removeable roof, possibly made from canvas, attached to a rope and pulley system that slaves would be able to attach and remove across the entire circumference of the colosseum - this allowed for public events to continue if the weather was an issue.

Palace of Knossos, Minoan, 3000-1500 BCE

Crete, Greece

Hypostyle halls - function purely as sacred space for contemplation, worship, and rituals.

Columns - 90% columns are round, free-standing and weight-bearing; Columns that taper from the base to the capital are made of palm trunks and reference prehistoric stalagmite and stalactite shrines.

Piers - rectangular/square and much larger than columns used to support extra weight

Palace of Knossos, Minoan, 3000-1500 BCE

Crete, Greece

Tri-partite Shrine - three-part shrine which housed the aniconic, or earth based religious figure, image of the Earth Mother

Heraldic Confrontation - symmetrical composition with something in the middle and two structures that flank it giving the center column importance; asymmetry is more common in Minoan architecture making this a significant structure in Minoan culture.

Altar Furniture - Small scale faience sculptures representing priests and iconic animals used specifically for ritual; paving stones pivot to open up subterranean storage areas where the altar furniture is stored;

Stairs - designed to direct the flow of water via a slight arch in the center of each step with shallow divets at the edges which served as gutters. make diagram

Palace of Knossos, Minoan, 3000-1500 BCE

Crete, Greece

Subterranean Chambers - storage chambers held pithos, or large ceramic vessels, where grain and other important items were stored.

Throne Room - Palace of Knossos, Minoan, 3000-1500

Crete, Greece

- All throne rooms at Knossos were highly decorated and intimate to demonstrate the important relationship between common man and rulers.

- Lustral basins - directly in front of this room; no drain, no privacy, not a bathroom; Used for ritual cleansing before you met the King and Queen; Water was sacred thusly, not thrown out

- Central hearth - located in throne room; perpetual hearth fire was kept and symbolized the energy of the Minoan community

- Frescoes - Unusual orientation and imagery on rear wall frescoe because it was restored by Mycenean culture; Griffons were part of their religion and the symmetrical orientation also identifies Mycenean culture.

Hall of Double-headed Axes, Palace of Knossos

Minoan, 3000-1500 BCE, Crete, Greece

Door partition - prescribed entrance made of post and lintel construction; had windows above door partition known as transome windows which flooded the rooms with light

Light Well - plein air voids to bring light to subterranean levels. Used vellum, strongly tanned hide that is thin and plyable, as storm windows that allowed light in; hung between columns;

Queen's Megaron, Palace of Knossos, Minoan

3000-1500 BCE, Crete, Greece

- Not technically a megaron though it could have been the queen's living quarter. Megarons are domestic structures seen in Mycenean architecture

- Distaff - an object on a stick with a wooden cage used for spinning linen; It was the responsibility of women in ancient Minoan culture to make the clothing for their community; One of the most important and practical jobs of women, including the queen.

Dolphin Fresco - reconstructed onto the wall, but is actually from the floor mural above this chamber.

- Dolphins and Octipi - common motif due to Minos being an island culture. Dolphins are part of Minoan myths where shipwrecked people were rescued by them; Octipi represented dangerous sea creatures.

Royal Bath - most bath tubs were made of fired clay and alabaster, a fine material comprised of gypsum and calcite; The royal and rich bathed and were buried in their bathtubs; Waste pipes were directly beneath the tub and clean water pipe nearby to supply fresh water; They used water heaters that looked like present-day Webber grills to heat their water.

Minoan culture, 1500-1400 BCE

Crete, Greece

 - violent volcanic erruption on satalite island, Thera, that subsequently caused tsunamis from the failing earth of Thera that hit Crete. The tidal wave hit over 2/3 of the island killing most and then superheated air set the Palace of Knossos on fire; Only a few Minoans survived and desperately tried to rebuild until Myceneans decided to move in not a conquest. Technically the Minoan culture didn't die but instead aligned and transformed into Mycenean culture.

- human sacrifice - not a common religious practice - however in one of the peak sanctuaries, located on mountain tops, three dead bodies were found: one had been sacrificed, one with a vessel full of blood, and the executer; It is believed that in light of the volcanic erruption they took extravagent strides to appease their gods, in an attempt to save their culture.

Mycenaen Culture

1900-1100 BCE

Not nomadic, migrated once from Causcasian Mountains around 1900 BCE - possibly desire for better location

Dominant cultural force in Greek area; agressive and warlike - basis for fortresses; had strategic advantage with the construction of their impenetrable citadels, or fortresses.

Mycenaen fortresses spread out over Greece; had their own kins though considered themselves Mycenaen - tended to fight amongst themselves

Technological advancement of culture is based upon their ceramic technology - migration and settlements are traced through indestructable shards of fired ceramics;

Priority of location - always built on high ground, mountains, for strategic advantage

- needed uninterrupted water source in case war broke out

- relatively close to trade conducted on water - primary source of import/export

- fertile, rich farmland; agriculture was a huge part of their society; Plain of Argos covered in limestone - cleared fields for building materials and made space for farming.

- Cultural Influences from trading with Minoans and Egyptians.

- Politically aligned with Tiryns - two fortresses to house and protect all of their people.

Aesthetics - appreciated pattern, color and symmetry when they expressed aesthetics.

Citadel of Mycenaens, Late Bronze Age

Plain of Argos, Mycenae

- Fortress walls were 50 feet tall and 8-12 feet thick for defensive purposes; not interested in aesthetics, priority in function and symbolism of power; Cyclopean Masonry - no mortar, no shaping, or dressing, of stone

-anti-seismic effect from cyclopean masonry that did not use mortar - the purpose of this was to allow shifting room from the impact of earthquakes.

- Only one entrance from the north; constructed like a funnel providing a tri-force of protection where Mycenaens could defend from above

- shallow sidewalk around the citadel, or fortress, prevented intruders with battering rams from having enough force to break through walls.

Citadel of Mycenaens, The Lion's Gate

Late Bronze Age

Plain of Argos, Mycenae

- Transition to ashlar masonry, cut stones, only for the Lion's Gate;

- Two significant times, 1900 BCE and 1250 BCE - initial construction of gate; second date represents the placement of the Lion motif

- Gate constructed of post and lintel monoliths weighing almost 100 tons each; For the sake of structural integrity, the lintel is arched, thicker at the center, and wider than the supporting posts.

- Symmetric, static, simple and direct describes Mycenae's practical approach to architecture.

- A corbelled arch, bricks that stagger out as they are stacked upon one another - weight placed on top of corbelling ensure structural integrity;

- Relieving Triangle, made from the corbelled arch where the double lion motif is. Motif dates 1250 BCE which is the current, approx. date of the Trojan War. Ferocious bronze lion heads facing outward symbolizes the patriarchal and militaristic stance of this culture at the gate;

The Lion's Gate is the only surviving monument in Mycenaen culture.

Heraldic Confrontation - orientation of a lion flanking the column demonstrating the importance of this architectural feature

- Mythological significance - supposedly Agamemnon was murdered here by his wife upon returning from the Trojan War.

Megaron Plan - Amegaron Palace

1900-1100 BCE, Mycenae

- Megaron, a place of residence for common and royality.

- typically megarons were constructed at the highest point in the palace

- Central room is coomprised of four weight bearing columns which held up the ceiling

- the central room is where the throne and hearth was located in the palace

- Every Mycenaen residence in each fortress utilized this style

- Cyclopean walls

- Three room chamber, Front Portico Vestible, had wooden interior walls and columns which were decorated and covered with painted frescoes.

Citadel of Tiryns, c. 1900 BCE, Mycenaen, Mycenae

Cyclopean walls built with the same intention and manner as the Citadel of Mycenae

- Contrast in that there was one main entrance AND one secret passage through the fortification wall; special passage that creates an optical illusion that it is solid stone

- Suggests something unique , that their fortification walls are not solid; they have hollow sections that serve as galleries which house grain and other important items in large pithos, or large ceramic vessels

- 7 interior gates were set up preventing intruders from immediately accessing the central courtyard where markets, residences, etc were.

- Corbelled roofs, staggered cut stone stacked upon one another and weighed down from above to maintain structural integrity, covering the galleries in Tiryns.

- Galleries stored pithos, large ceramic vessels used for storage, and served as barns for livestock; Galleries located sporatically throughout the walls.

Tomb of Agamemnon (Treasury of Atreus)

c. 1300 BCE, Mycenaen, Mycenae

- Dromos - the corridor that leads to the door of tomb

- royalty buried in tholos tombs, round tombs with corbelled roofs

- not aligned with astrological significance

- Tomb of Agamemnon had an 80 foot long corridor, or dromos, which used ashlar masonry, or cut stone.

- Dromos would have been used for ceremonial ritual at the time of burial and then filled with earth to never be opened again

- Funeral Feasts - burn meat and other sacrificial objects for the gods

Tombs would be filled with items and treasures needed for the spirit - most have been raided

- Tombs were planned ahead of time prior to death of the royal family member

- Internal decorations in the tomb and ritualistic body embellishments - religious intent

1100-1000 BCE - The Dark Age
1000-700 BCE - Geometric Greek

700-480 BCE - Archaic Greek

480-330 BCE - Classical Greek

330-46 BCE - Hellenistic Greek

Temple Model, c. 750 BCE, Geometric Greek,

Heraeum Shrine, Argos

- Small clay model of what a Greek Temple would look like - this was created during the “Geometric Period” when they were relearning how to construct expensive and elaborate art/architecture due to the dark age.

- Blueprints weren’t invented until the renaissance so they had to make a small 3-D model which was then given to the architects to create.

- The temples were small with the sole intention of housing the cult image and to relate to the idea of their relationship to the gods.

- Greek Temples were typically rectangular which formed a hip roof

hip roof - two planes that meet at the top and support the weight of each other. The hip roof on each side of the temple creates a triangular opening or the pediment. Greeks painted images or sculptures on the pediment to display mythological narratives.

Fall of Mycenaen Culture

c. 1100 BCE

The fall of the Mycenaean Empire - 1100 BCE; didn’t disappear but no longer ruled. This is partially due to the Dorians. They came to Greece from current day Germany. What made them tough opponents was their iron technology when the Mycenaeans only had bronze weapons.

Then the “sea people” who would come, ravage and leave crumbled the Mycenaean Empire - All forms of government was dissolved and life became part of the Dark Ages. 1100 - 900 BCE

Greek Temples

Form and Function

No Greek country at this time - separated by mountain ranges

Apolis - Greek city

Apolisi were constructed differently on cultural and architectural levels. They were distinctly different from the Mycenaeans in that they built temples.

Temples were not like churches, but functioned to hold images and objects representing specific cult figures - objects associated with these religious figures
The second thing a temple was used for was to store anything durable that was used for religious offerings.

Greeks feared the gods they worshipped and dedicated several temples and beautiful structures to appease their gods

All greek temples had front porches supported by two columns - it functioned as the place where people would visit. The porch served as an area where you could look in and see the symbol of the god.

Rituals would take place outside of the temple completely - again temples only housed the cult image and offerings.

Temples were not megarons

Greek temples were made of wattle and daub - mud and straw which would then be plastered over and painted. These are degradable materials which would not survive. If anything the only evidence was a subtle footprint.

Aesthetic Orders associated with

Greek architecture

The gender of the deity has nothing to do with the order in which they chose. It is actually decided based upon the size of the temple - the larger the temple, they would used Doric, the smaller they would use Ionic

Greeks primarily used the Doric and Ionic orders - highly decorative would be against the law - an act of hubris - greed

In the center of the columns there was a square locking mechanism between each section of the column.

Doric Order

1. The column - sitting on the ground, no base - Doric. The fluting was shallow

2. The capital - squished pillow, Doric - it makes the transition between the vertical and horizontal

3. The frieze - the top of the entablature - in the Doric order the freeze is broken up into sections of triglyphs and metopes.

Ionic Order

- Column has base - fluting was deep to give a slender appearance.

- Capital has scroll or volute motif

- The top part of the entablature was not divided; it was a continuous band

Corinthian Order

highly decorative and thusly barely used in ancient Greek architecture though it was borrowed from - and dominanted Roman architecture.

Greeks evolved very specific and orderly system that dictated architectural parts.

The steps of the temple are part of their space - they are called the stereobate

The temple floor and the step above the stereobate is called the stylobate

Body of a column is called a shaft

Capital - the difference between the three orders

Entablature/Frieze/Triglyph and metope

Pediments/Raking Cornice/Hip Roof

After the greeks stopped using wattle and daub was wood

These image of triglyphs are stone interpretations of the wood used to build these.

You cannot separate architecture and sculpture in ancient Greece - often the sculptures served architectural function and vise versa.

Temples had internal rooms and columns which surrounded the exterior and supported it.

The interior had three compartments - main entrances or Pronaos faced east and west and was supported by two columns.

Inside the central chamber or Cella was where the cult image would be placed.

The back room or Opisthodomos was not accessible from the cella or pronaos. This was the treasury where fine goods were housed.

Columns in Antis - the columns are aligned with the length of the wall - they do not extend beyond the length of the room.

Peripteral - one row of columns going outside the entire temple.

Dipteral - two rows of columns going around the temple (less common).

Basic form of greek temples was a simple rectangle. Once they advanced their architectural understanding they would stretch the forms and increase the volume.

Eventually architecture would be based more so on aesthetics rather than mathematical formulas.

Temple of Poseidon, c. 600 BCE, Archaic Greek, Paestum

Compared to

Temple of Hera, c. 700 BCE, Archaic Greek, Olympia

Temple of Poseidon, c. 600 BCE, Archaic Greek, Paestum

The archaic age - the age where they’re trying to figure things out. Not worried about the structural integrity of the building, they just want to know how to make it look good. Example of a reincarnation of the doric order.

There were roofs on these temples and rooms inside - the reason they haven’t survived today is because they were made of wood.

Temple of Hera, c. 700 BCE, Archaic Greek, Olympia

Example of the perfect doric temple built from wood - as the wood rotted they replaced sections with stone.

They had an ideal that the triglyphs should be directly centered over the columns - that doesn’t work once aesthetics overcomes mathematics.

Delphi, ca. 1600 BCE, Bronze Age, Greece

This site was originally dedicated to the earth mother dating back to the Bronze Age.

Oracular Shrine - Delphi was the most important in Greece.

Delphi functioned as a defacto-central government. They were able to moderate the most extreme forces that may pop up in Greece through their prophecies. It served great good to the survival of the culture.

It was a Panhellenic Shrine - a shrine for all the Greeks.

The Greeks identified themselves as being Greek in two ways: language and religion

Mythological significance, for nine months out of the year this is Apollo’s shrine, when he must repent for the sin of murdering the earth mother’s sanctuary guardian for the other 3 months. During those months it was the shrine of Dionysus and to accommodate they built a large outdoor theater.

Four phrases that define fatalistic Greek culture

1. “Everything in moderation, nothing too much.”

2. “Man is the measure of all things.”

3. “Know thyself.”

4. “Count no man happy until he be dead.”

Patriarchal society - women weren’t even considered as a full person. Women were to perform three functions: run the household, make the babies and occasionally serve as a sexual partner.

The only women who had any power at all were the high-end courtesans. The houses were built to sequester women from society. This came from the Dorics and Mycenaeans' cultures.

Treasury of the Siphnians, c. 530 BCE, Archaic Greek, Delphi

The treasuries spotting delphi were built like temples but served the function of storing durable goods.

Stoa - small paved places where you put sculptures of cult figure.

It’s nearly impossible to know what order this temple is, but one thing makes it apparent. Uninterrupted frieze indicates that it’s of the ionic order.

A specific myth is being told on the frieze - a story between the giants and the greeks. This is a greek creation myth explained in detail around the entire treasury. Their sculptural architecture and architectural sculptures intend to be narrative.

female figure - column - caryatid

male figure - column - atlantid

Temple of Apollo, Delphi, Archaic Greek, Greece

The Greeks were all about striving for the ideal - what they were seeking was a notion of what it is we are to strive for with the recognition that we may not get there. It was an expression of mental and physical fitness. This desire to aspire to something more perfect at all times is most reflected in their sculpture and architecture.

Be able to identify the floor plan, order and importance of each temples - housing cult image

Theatre of Dionysus, c. 500 BCE, Archaic Greek, Delphi

Greeks built their ampitheatres, half circles, into pre-existing hillsides.

The insulation of the hillside creates the accoustics. They are semi-circles. Building into the curve of a hill creates beautiful acoustics.

Dedicated to the god of drama, music and luxury, Dionysus.

Numbered seats - public events held here constantly - poetry readings, plays, performances

Temple of Aphaia, c. 500-530 BCE, Archaic Greek, Aegina

Doric Order

Doric Order 

What makes this temple significant is that while it was being constructed something happened and they had to reconstruct parts of it. As a result this shows the evolution of the architecture.

Massive collaboration between the sculptors and architects.

This temple took between 20-30 years to construct due to Persian War which, miraculously, the Greeks were able to defeat. (1 Greek to 500 Persians) 

War caused changes in the architecture and sculpture. The decorations on the top of the roof were made from architectural terra cotta. (Fired clay, ground up, worked into a new clay body, sculpted and fired again)

Note the double interior colonnade - This was a large temple but they didn’t like the aesthetic scale of the large columns on the inside. Running along on the inside of the interior chamber were two sets of columns separated by an entablature. This created a more appealing aesthetic and structural support system. The horizontal architrave becomes post and lintels.

The pediments were designed to house sculptural narrative. They created incredibly large sculptures in this pediment.

In most pediment sculptures they finish the front of the sculpture as well as they would the back. They believed they owed something to the art they were making - if I’m going to make this, then I have to make it right or just not make it at all. The pediment is literally a shelf where the sculptures rest. These figures had bronze shields and armour.

Temple of Zeus, 460 BCE, Classical Greece, Olympia

- Doric Order

- Columns change - stone replaced wood

- locking mechanism

- pediment tells story of a chariot race - sculptures follow the contour of the pediment; evidence of intense aesthetic consideration

- Chryselephantine sculpture of Zeus (60 ft high), Pheidias, 460 BCE

Temple of Hephaestus (Theseus), 449-444BCE,

Theseum Architect, Athens

As they constructed temples they began to notice problems:

1. If the temple is big like Aphea or Zeus, the horizontal lines of the stereobate/stylobate/entablature didn’t look level. They were level however, but how could they fix that?

2. The columns were perfectly vertical but didn’t look that way. This was also an optical illusion.

3. No matter what view of the building, you’re going to see one corner column that looks smaller than the others. But that is because it was against the vastness of the sky.

4. The entablature that goes across the width and length of the building meets over the corner columns. Even though there is no more weight on the corners than the center columns, but it looks like it is.

The architects were observing these problems but were also faced with the Persian war.

1. Arching of the Horizontals - all of the horizontal lines were ever so slight but made them look level.

2. If the columns look like they’re leaning out - they would simply lean them in a bit.

3. Weak looking corner columns - make them slightly larger.

Double the number of columns from the front, plus one is the mathematical equation for aesthetic idealism.

Temple of Sounion, c. 450 BCE, Theseum Architect, Sounion

A temple dedicated to Poseidon.

A beautiful articulation of the Doric order

Acropolis of Athens

Acropolis - high city

Part of the function of the buildings on the Acropolis is to celebrate narratives and to instill the memories of the past.

This is the most important sanctuary of Greece even though they were split into city-states. The other city-states pulled a large sum of money together to help rebuild Athens after the Persian War.

The base where the temple once stood (before Parthenon) was a large block of polished marble where the Athenians would rebuild their Acropolis.

Phideas, the architect, took more money than he was supposed to in order to rebuild Athens - The people of Athens thought he had over-decorated the Acropolis and was accused of Hubris - unlawful greed.

Imagine large statues of Athena draped in fabric.

Zig-zag passageway that leads through the town to the Parthenon  (and Delphi)- it creates a processional.

Pan-Athenite Festival - All the Athenians participated; it functioned to bring the large statues of Athena a new cloak that would’ve been woven by local virgins.

Propylaea -     Pro - first

                         Pylaea - gate

Propylaea - It is meant as the formal entrance and meant to obscure/disguise the fact that you are climbing a steep incline as you approach the Parthenon. Different than reverential climbing - they were not interested in subservient states, but rather to transport you to a spiritual awakening.

The exterior columns are of Doric order - the columns that line the pathway are Ionic;

Ionic is typically used for smaller structures.

The ground wasn’t level as you ascended; Propylaea - first gate that transported you to a sacred space and created an illusion that you were climbing a steep incline

Architectural sculptures in the pediment - all of which have been lost

Temple of Athena Nike, 427-424 BCE, Classical Greek,

Callicrates - architect

Nike = Victory;

When the Turks conquered Greece, they deliberately dismantled this temple to take down Greek victory. The Turks had imprisoned Greeks to tear down this temple in an attempt to demoralize them. 

Ionic order - You can see the characteristics. Columns with base, deep fluting of the shafts, the volutes, spirals which form the capitals.

The corners of Greek temples are problematic. If it’s Doric, the issues lies with the relationship to the sky; Architects struggled with what to do with the corners - so they deepened the fluting and had it meet at a 45 degree angle.

Sculptures on top of the temples - few of them every survived. Sometimes made of gold, bronze or terracotta.

Balustrade - physical wall that is part of Nike Athena, but not part of the support structure.

There is one thing abot Temple of the Athena Nike that is rather unique. There’s an external wall that doesn’t form part of the building. 

Architecture and sculpture are inseparable. Sculptures served as architectural supports and vise versa

Rituals were conducted outside - of the temples;

Nike Untying her Sandal - low-relief; depicts Nike as a draped figure  where you still discern her clothes from skin. They have finally have figured out a way to reveal the body beneath the drapery - “wet drapery”;This is an artistic device - for the Greeks the sculpture constitutes the skin of the building. They believed the buildings should be animated in order to be a vital part of the community;

Theater of Epidauros, 350 BCE, Polyleitos the Younger,

Late Classical Greek

Best preserved theater - almost perfectly preserved.

The mechanics of the stage are from the Greek times, still function and in use. There is an elevator which opens up in the center of the stage.

All the isles were numbered.

Stage - Orchestra

Parados - People could walk in to take their seats; additional actors could walk onto stage from here

Proscenion -

Scene - Not visible; this is where the “magic” was hidden

Diazoma B’ - Lowest point of the theatre

Diazoma A’ - Highest point of the theatre

Koilon -

Proscene - lifted actors would be hoisted by rope from here

Very little props - Spare theater, minimal stage set.

Greek Theaters created incredible results with very little architecture - good accoustics from being built into the hillside and seats.

The bowl which amplifies sound was what they relied on

Etruscan Culture and History

8th - 1st CE

- The Etruscan culture began to decline during the uprise of the Roman culture

- Derived a lot of their cultural and religious influences from the Greeks; established city-states but each area protected themselves; had religion but heavily influenced by Orientalized period of Ancient Greek

Love for art, poetry, wine, luxury - they dedicated their lives more to art than warfare.

Well-known for being physically fit and athletic.

In general, they took more of a diplomatic stance to problem solving.

Unfortunately the Romans destroyed much of the Etruscan arts - which is difficult because their artistic styles varied per city-states.

Portonaccio Temple: Model, Veii, c. 510-500 BCE

- ca. 500-450 BCE was the Etruscans strongest time - well developed culture - socially and economically

- Etruscans believed if you built a nice apartment for the dead, the spirit could go on living a peaceful life in their tomb.

- Tombs were not robbed because they had been covered in earth - corbelled roofs

- Wealth tied to:

agriculture - ideal; fertile soil - could grow anything

natural resources - fresh water, mineral and metal deposits.

    Really good metalworkers - seen in their bronze and iron sculptures

sea trade - export/import

Appreciated and mimicked Greek art - very sophisticated Greek pottery and sculpture found in Etruscan tholos tombs

Sir William Hamilton worked for Josiah Wedgewood in England who had an educationally driven ceramics factory; Wedgewood sent Hamilton to research Etruscan pottery. Hamilton was thef irst person to realize there were a variety of aesthetic styles in this one culture - he furthered our understanding of and appreciation for Etruscan pottery.

The Etruscan Discipline - the training of priests through college-like programs. Religion was at the heart of Etruscan culture.

Literate people - borrowed Greek literature and applied it to their own culture.

The wrote books of divination, or prophesy. They believed in a revealed religion. The gods showed up to these people and told them what to do. In this way they were different from the Greeks because they thought that regardless of doing their gods bidding, they would still suffer.

Submit and allow gods to control you - allow priests to interpret signs from gods

So the temples were incredibly important to these people - the space in and around the temple which housed the cult image is where divine intervention and rituals took place.

Looking to nature to understand what the gods were specifically telling them to do.

Diviner - responsibility of the priests to learn sophisticated hydraulic engineering which was later passed on to the Romans and modern.

There was no difference between sacred and secular space - it was all sacred.

Two main differences from Greek Temples aside from building material:

- Etruscan temples are always resting on a high-base (not to be confused with a stereobate). Higher placement than any other structure in the town.

- Pseudo-peripteral floor plan - their columns don’t go all the way around the temple.

- Had a very deep front porch where people were allowed to socialize and focus on their religious figures.

They did not rely on their buildings to tell important narratives of their culture though they did embellish with terra cotta figures. These were life-size figures situated on the rooftop while representing the gods watching over.

Portonaccio Temple: Model, Etruscan, Veii, c. 510-500 BCE

This model is based upon the foundations which still exist and based upon the descriptions of Vitruvius - 10 books of architecture discussing aesthetics and engineering of Greek, Etruscan and Roman architecture.

The angle of the hip-roof was altered to make a broader and lower temple.

Had an extremely high temple base where the porch was open to the public, not to be confused with stereobate, people could socialize and worship cult image

Pseudo-peripteral layout - seemingly one row of columns wrapping arond the exterior of entire temple

Not concerned with the numerical order of columns. Not tied to the mathematical aesthetic.

Anta - side rooms

Cella or Naos - room housing the cult image

Pediment - shelf resting upon capital, typically used for sculptural narrative - they did not embellish architecture with narratives

There are obvious Greek influences but Etruscan figurative sculpture is more animated and a separation between man and gods.

Not seen as a sculpture but as PART OF THE ARCHITECTURE. It was designed to go up there from the conception of the structure.

Kouros figure - Sculptures of standing male figures painted with bright colors to standout from a distance; pertaining to Greek culture but also other cultures

Banditaccia Necropolis, tumulus tombs

used from 7th-3rd centuries BCE, Cerveteri

- the size of tumulus, or round tombs, vary - made use of corbelled roofs which were then piled up with earth

Hypogeal Tombs - also covered with earth, round, corbeled, but constructed through excavating into hillsides. truly subterranean.

Etruscans believed the spirit could continue with its "daily life" within the tomb - more like an apartment; furnished with tools, objects, furniture, food, images of animals, etc.

Depicted the interior of the tombs as though they were domestic shelters - layed planks at the ceiling to disguise the corbelling;

Sepulchral Chamber - where offerings could be made to honor the deceased and so the gods would view the deceased favorably.

Unlike the Greeks, Etruscans viewed the afterlife as a happy thing.

The bodies were buried in elaborate terracotta/sculptural sarcophagi - sometimes situated as though they were partaking at the dining hall - reclined and indulging figures.

Large tombs to fit several family members.

Central point of the city.

Important temples and business took place here.

The Maison Carree, 19th BCE, Nimes, France, Roman

Used molds for their concrete columns and bricks so everything was uniform. Concrete is stronger than marble.

Pseudo-Peripteral with engaged columns. They didn’t really need the columns for structural integrity but they used them for aesthetics.

Greeks invented the Corinthian Order but the Romans used it - extreme appreciation for elaborate decoration. Not a culture of moderation

Romans were far less concerned with the depiction of narrative - they did have some sculptures in the pediments but their sculpture was not integral to their architecture.

The porch and the high base was derived from Etruscan architecture. 

They believed in their gods, but if they had to come to a difference between their gods and politics - their political beliefs would always win.

Pontifex Maximus - Pontif/Pope - there was no separation from church and state.

SO the temples they built were important for religious purposes BUT were intended for additional propaganda purposes.

In Greece, the primary building material was stone or marble.

Romans had a broader variety of materials - used a lot of terracotta, tufa (a sedimentary rock and is made in a similar way to stalagmites where water leaches down and leaves pockets of calcium), travertine (also sedimentary rock with a high calcium carbonate content, BUT it is created by combining the ambient air with the heat of hot springs), limestone, and most importantly concrete.

Roman architecture was highly decorative and embellished to the 9's. Not a culture of moderation - more was more.

Pozzolana - concrete - so strong it could set up underwater; sometimes mixed with broken pottery shards. Much more refined and stronger than the concrete we use today.

Attached marble veneer to their sculptures and flat areas of buildings, but not the columns.

Traces of gilding is evident on the Maison Carree .

- Had an incredible work force of slaves to build their cities

- Every Roman city had a forum, or city center

- Roman Forums wre markets for ideas involving builidings for commerce, social interaction, markets, residencies, etc.

The structure of a forum reflects the function of Roman Temples

- Engineering Significance - an aqueduct that transported water from one side of the valley to the other.

- Romans had to control access to this water supply in order to control the population

- Romans were very good diviners, or water seekers, and took advantage of the ample supply of underground springs

- Roman Empire did not fall - they added Christianity to their own religion; During Constantine's rule he converted to Christianity and then divided the empire.

- As the empire morphed and changed the Turks and "barbarians" of the north came in and conquered what was known as the Roman Empire.

Pan - all

Theos - gods

A place of worship for "all of the gods"

Still standing today because it was converted into a Christian Church and taken care of after the fall of the Roman Empire.

Corinthian-octostyle - Corinthian order with 8 columns across the front made of Egyptian granite - imported

Pentelic marble for the capitals - the rest is made of concrete with white marble veneer.

Once depicted a Greek-based narrative of Gigantomachy - Battle of the Gods

Rotunda - circular ground plan

Engineering Significance - The walls are not solid - outer and inner shell with internal buttresses and filled with rubble

The dome is a perfect hemisphere which adds alot of pressure to the walls - but due to brilliant engineering of turning the top tier into a spring-board pan it secures the bottom two layers and keeps the base of the dome from falling outward.

Mathematics was considered a type of philosophy - the aesthetic of geometric shapes paired with rounded curves was intended to affect the viewer subliminally and provide internal harmony.

Center opening on the stepped dome is an occulus - sky light opening

Palaestra

Physical activity centers were deeply embedded in Greek and Roman culture. Identifies the seeking of pleasure and importance of communal gathering in Rome.

Fully staffed spas with specialized positions - created jobs for Romans.

It was important to keep the large population of Romans happy and docile - Rome's centralized government ensured this with public centers like, Palaestras and offered public events seen at the Colosseum.