what exerts the most control over the ANS?

the hypothalamus

endocrine system

interacts with the nervous system to coordinate and integrate the activity of body cells by means of hormones (signals)

autonomic nervous system (ANS); aka

the nervous system regulates the activity of muscles and glands via?

electrochemical impulses delivered by neurons

translation of hormone

to excite

hormones

chemical messengers secreted by cells into the extracellular fluids that travel through blood and regulate the metabolic function of other cells in the body that have lag times of seconds to hours and have a prolonged effects

the major processes that hormones control and integrate include (5)?

1. reproduction

2. growth and development

3. maintenance of electrolyte, water, and nutrient balance of the blood

4. regulation of celllular metabolism and energy balance

5. mobilization of body defenses

endocrinology

the scientific study of hormones and the endocrine organs

produce nonhormonal substances, such as sweat and saliva, and have ducts that carry these substances to a membrane surface

endocrine glands

the hypothalams does what and is what type of organ?

with its neural funtions, it produces and realeases hormones making it a neuroendocrine organ

what are some other hormone-producing tissues and organs (6)?

1. adipose cells (fat cells)

2. thymus

3. walls of the small intestine

4. stomach

5. kidneys

6. heart

adipose cells release?

leptin

the thymus releases?

thymic hormones

1. autocrines

2. paracrines

3. eicosanoids

1. gonadal hormones

2. adrenocortical hormones

1. alters plasma membrane (cell exterior) permeability (permits passage of molecules/ions) or membrane potential (energy), or both, by opening or closing ion (atom/molecule w/ +/- electric charge) channels

2. stimulates synthesis of enzymes and other proteins within the cell

3. de/activates enzymes

4. induces secretory activity

4. stimulates mitosis

1. hormone binds to receptor

2. receptor activates g protein

3. g protein activateds adenylate cyclase

4. adneylate cyclase conerts ATP to cAMP

5. cAMP activates protein kinases.

PIP2

DAG

IP3

phosphatidyl inositol bisphosphate

diacylglycerol 

inositol trisphosphate

1. the steroid hormone diffuses through the plasma membrane and binds an intracellular receptor

2. the receptor homrone complex enters the nucleus

3. the receptor homrone complex binds a specific DNA region

4. binding initiates transcription of the gene to mRNA

5. the mRNA directs protein synthesis

1. blood levels of hormone (how much)

2. relative number of receptors

3. affinity (strength) of binding between the hormone and the receptor

1. humoral

2. neural

3. hormonal

stimulus: low concentration of Ca²⁺ in capillary blood 

response: parathyroid gland secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH) to increase calcium

stimulus: action potentials in preganglionic sympathetic fibers to adrenal medulla (stress)

response: nervouse system stimulates adrenal medulla to secrete (non)epinephrine

hormone synthesized in the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary which stimulates contraction of the uterus during childbirth and ejection of milk during nursing

upreg of their receptors as preg progresses

1. growth hormone (GH)

2. thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

3. adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

4. follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

5. luteinizing hormone (LH)

6. prolactin (PRL)

1. thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

2. adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

3. follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

4. luteinizing hormone (LH)

1. stimulate uptake of amino acids (protein from the blood) for protein synthesis (DNA) which allows growth by cell division

2. stimulates uptake of sulfur into cartilage matrix (collagen) and deposition into bone matrix

adrenal cortex

corticosteroid and glucocorticoids

1. elicited by the hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) with levels peaking right before one wakes 

2. rising levels of glucocorticoids feed back and block secretion of CRH and ACTH

1. thyroid gland defects

2. inadequate TSH or TRH release (secondary)

3. gland is removed surgically

4. dietary iodine is inadequate

1. they are absent from the blood before puberty 

2. during puberty, the gonadotropic cells activiated and the levels rise in the blood causing the gonads to mature

1. decrease in PIH secretion

2. TRH

alcohol (ETOH) consumption causing water loss

the body attempts to conserve water called vasoconstriction and may increase blood pressure called vasopressin/

1. meningitis

2. hypothalamic injury

3. post-op neuro

4. general anesthesia

5. cerebral adema

1. increased metabolic rate (calorgenic effect) = heat production by transcription of genes concerned with glucose oxidation

2. promotion of normal growth and development

4. glucose oxidation by maintaining BP by increasing the number of adrenergic receptors in the blood vessels

1. thyroglobulin is synthesized and discharged into the follicle lumen

2. iodine is trapped

3. iodide is oxidized to iodine

4. iodine is attached to tyrosine forming DIT and MIT

5. iodinated tyrosines are linked together to form T₃  and T₄

6. thyroglobulin colloid is endocytosed

7. lysosomal enzymes cleave T₄  and T₃ from thyroglobulin and the hormones diffuse from the follicular cell into the bloodstream

1. the Ts immediately binds to thyroxine-binding globulins (TBGs) and other transport proteins produced by the liver

2. both Ts bind to target tissue receptors (T₃  10x more active making it bind more avidly)

3. peripheral tissues convert T₄  to T₃  by removing one iodine atom

hyperthyroid syndrome causing

1. low metabolic rate

2. feeling chilled

3. constipation

4. thick, dry skin

5. puffy eyes

6. edema

7. lethargy

8. mental sluggishness

severe hypothyroidism in infants causing

1. metal retardation

2. short, disproportionate body

3. thick tongue and neck

most common hyperthyroid, autoimmune condition causing 

1. high metabolic rate

2. sweating

3. rapid, irregular heartbeat

4. nervousness

5. weight loss despite diet

6. possibly protruding eyeballs

1. stimulates osteoclast (bone resorbing cells) activity

2. enhances reabsorption of calcium and excretion of phosphate (PO4 ^3-) by kidneys

3. promotes conversion of Vit D to calcitrol as it is needed for calcium absorption by the sm. intestines

1. osteitis fibrosa cystica

2. hypercalcemia

3. metastatic calcification

1. bones have moth eaten appearance on x-ray

2. bones fracture randomly 

abnormally elevated blood calcium levels that 

1. depresses the nervous system causing abnormal reflexes and weak skelatal muscles

2. excess calcium salts precipitate in the kidney causing stones

zona glomerulosa

zona fasciculata

zona reticularis

hormones that help control the balance of mineral salt and water in the blood 

(aldosterone!)

1. most potent mineralocorticoid

2. involved in electrolyte balance through regulation of sodium

3. reduces loss of sodium (Na⁺) and stimulates reabsorption by the kidney's distal tubules

4. stimulates transcription of sodium, potassium and ATPase (NA/K Pump), and regultion of K⁺, H⁺, HCO₃^-, and Cl^-

1. renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mech.

2. plasma concentrations of potassium

3. ACTH

4. atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

release of aldosterone when BP low

1. when blood pressure (volume) falls, specialized cells in the kidneys are excited

2. the cells respond, releasing renin into the blood

3. renin cleaves off part of the plasma protein angiotensinogen triggering an enzymatic cascade that forms angiontensin II

4. this stimulates the glomerulosa cells to release aldosterone

1. under stress, the hypothalamus secretes more corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) 

2. rise in CRH causes a rise in ATCH blood levels which increases the rate of aldosterone in small amounts

3. increased blood volume/pressure helps deliver nutrients and respiratory gasses during the stressful period

1. hormone secreted by the heart when BP rises

2. finetunes blood pressure and sodium-water balance of the body

3. inhibits RAA mechanism (block renin/aldosterone) 

4. enhances water and sodium reabsorption 

5. decreases BP by allowing sodium and water to flow out of the body via urine

1. hypertension and edema due to excessive sodium and water retention

2. accelerated excretion of potassium ions causing muscle weakness and paralysis

1. stimulated by ACTH

2. negative feedback by cortisol (high levels) inhibits CRH and ASTH secretion

3. under stress, SNS overrides negative feedback causing and increase in CRH, ACTH and cortisol.

cortisol

cortisone

corticosterone

1. excess ACTH-releasing pituitary tumor

2. ACTH-releasing malignancy of the lungs, pancreas, or kidneys

3. tumor of the adrenal cortex

4. clinical administration of glucocorticoid drugs

1. persistent elevated blood glucose levels (steroid diabetes)

2. dramatic losses in mucsle and bone protein

3. water and salt retention

4. hypertension and edema

1. swollen "moon" face 

2. redistribution of fat to the abdomen and the posterior neck (buffalo hump)

3. easy bruising

4. poor wound healing 

5. severe infection before recognizable signs

6. muscle weakness and spontaneous fractures 

1. lose weight

2. plasma glucose and sodium levels drop

3. potassium levels rise

4. severy dehydration

5. hypotension 

hypersecretion of catecholamines arising from a medullary chromaffin cell tumor that causes uncontrolled sympathetic nervous system such as

1. elevated blood glucose

2. increased metabolic rate

3. rapid heartbeat and palpitations

4. hypertension

5. intense nervousness 

6. sweating

glycogenolysis

gluconeogenesis

increased blood glucose levels by liver cells

rising glucose levels

insulin

somatostatin

1. elevated blood glucose levels

2. rising levels of amino/fatty acids

3. release of acetylcholine by parasympathetic nerve fibers

4. hyperglycemic hormones (glucagon, epinephrine, GH, thyroxine, or glucocorticoids)

1. enhances membrane transport of glucose into most body cells, esp muscle and fat cells

2. inhibits the breakdown of glycogen to glucose

3. inhibits the conversion of amino acids or fats to glucose

1. neuronal development 

2. feeding behavior

3. learning

4. memory

1. catalyze the oxidation of glucose for ATP production

2. join glucose molecules together to from glycogen

3. convert glucose to fat (particulary adipose tissue)

somatostatin

activation of the sympathetic nervous sys

polyuria

polydipsia

polyphagia

overdose of insulin that releases hyperglycemic hormones causing

1. anxiety

2. nervousness

3. tremors

4. weakness

5. insufficient glucose delivery to the brain

6. disorinetation

7. unconsciousness

8. death