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Anatomy & Physiology II
Test 1: Endocrine System
283
Biology
Undergraduate 1
01/13/2013

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Term

what exerts the most control over the ANS?

Definition

the hypothalamus

Term

endocrine system

Definition

interacts with the nervous system to coordinate and integrate the activity of body cells by means of hormones (signals)

Term

autonomic nervous system (ANS); aka

Definition
efferent division of the peripheral nervous system that innervates caridiac and smooth muscles and glands; aka the involuntary or visceral motor system
Term

the nervous system regulates the activity of muscles and glands via?

Definition

electrochemical impulses delivered by neurons

Term

translation of hormone

Definition

to excite

Term

hormones

Definition

chemical messengers secreted by cells into the extracellular fluids that travel through blood and regulate the metabolic function of other cells in the body that have lag times of seconds to hours and have a prolonged effects

Term

the major processes that hormones control and integrate include (5)?

Definition

1. reproduction

2. growth and development

3. maintenance of electrolyte, water, and nutrient balance of the blood

4. regulation of celllular metabolism and energy balance

5. mobilization of body defenses

Term

endocrinology

Definition

the scientific study of hormones and the endocrine organs

Term
exocrine glands
Definition

produce nonhormonal substances, such as sweat and saliva, and have ducts that carry these substances to a membrane surface

Term

endocrine glands

Definition
ductless glands that produce hormones that are released into surrounding tissue fluid 
Term

the hypothalams does what and is what type of organ?

Definition

with its neural funtions, it produces and realeases hormones making it a neuroendocrine organ

Term

what are some other hormone-producing tissues and organs (6)?

Definition

1. adipose cells (fat cells)

2. thymus

3. walls of the small intestine

4. stomach

5. kidneys

6. heart

Term

adipose cells release?

Definition

leptin

Term

the thymus releases?

Definition

thymic hormones

Term
autocrines
Definition
chemicals that exert their effects on the same cells that secrete them (ie. certain prostaglandins released by smooth muscle cells cause those smooth muscle cells to contract)
Term
paracrines
Definition
act locally but affect other cell types other than those releasing the paracrine chemicals (ie somatostatin released by one population of pancreatic cells inhibits the release of insulin by a different population of pancreatic cells)
Term
what is the difference between hormones and auto/paracrines?
Definition
hormones are long-distance chemical signals and auto/paracrines are short-distance signals that travel in blood or lymph throughout the body
Term
although a large variety of hormones are produced, nearly all of them can be classified chemically as what?
Definition
amino acid based or steroids
Term
a majority of hormones fall into what chemical classification?
Definition
amino acid based
Term
peptides
Definition
short chains of amino acids
Term
proteins
Definition
long polymers of amino acids
Term
amino acid
Definition
organic compound containing nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen that is the building block of protein
Term
polymer
Definition
a substance of high molecular weight with long, chainlike molecules consisting of many similar (reapeated) units
Term
eicosanoids
Definition
biologically active lipids that act as para/autocrines produced by nearly all cell membranes that are highly localized, affecting only nearby cells
Term
lipids
Definition
organic compound formed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen such as fats and cholesterol
Term
leukotrienes
Definition
signaling chemicals that mediate inflammation and some allergic reactions 
Term
prostaglandins 
Definition
have mulitple targets and effects, ranging from raising blood pressure and increasing the expulsive uterine contractions of birth to enhancing blood clotting, pain, and inflammation
Term
what are substances with hormone-like activity (3)?
Definition

1. autocrines

2. paracrines

3. eicosanoids

Term
steroids are synthesized from what?
Definition
cholesterol 
Term
of the homones produced by the major endocrine organs, which two are steroids?
Definition

1. gonadal hormones

2. adrenocortical hormones

Term
target cells
Definition
cells having receptors that allow hormones to influence their activity (ie. in/decrease the rates of normal cellular processes) in which the response depends on the cell type
Term
what changes do hormones typically produce (5)?
Definition

1. alters plasma membrane (cell exterior) permeability (permits passage of molecules/ions) or membrane potential (energy), or both, by opening or closing ion (atom/molecule w/ +/- electric charge) channels

2. stimulates synthesis of enzymes and other proteins within the cell

3. de/activates enzymes

4. induces secretory activity

4. stimulates mitosis

Term
what are the two ways hormones act at receptors?
Definition
water-soluble hormones act on receptors in the plasma membrane or lipid-soluble hormones act on receptors inside the cell, which directly activates genes 
Term
water-soluble hormones
Definition
all amino based hormones except for thyroid hormones 
Term
lipid-soluble hormones
Definition
steroid or thyriod hormones
Term
plasma membrane receptors
Definition
coupled via regulatory molecules called G proteins to one or more intracellular second messengers which mediate the target cell's response
Term
G protein
Definition
regulatory molecules
Term
all amino acid format hormones except for thyroid act by what mechanism?
Definition
2nd messenger
Term
thyroid/steroid hormones act by what mechanism?
Definition
direct gene activation
Term
second messenger
Definition
intracellular molecule generated by the binding of a chemical (hormone or neurotransmitter) to a receptor protein; mediates intracellular responses to the chemical messenger
Term
what is an example of a second messenger?
Definition
cyclic AMP (cAMP)
Term
cyclic AMP
Definition
second messenger used by neurotransimtters or olfactory (smell) receptors that is formed from ATP by a plasma membrane enzyme called adenylate cyclase
Term
enzyme
Definition
protein that acts as a biological catalyst that speeds up a chemical reaction
Term
5 steps of the cAMP signaling mechanism
Definition

1. hormone binds to receptor

2. receptor activates g protein

3. g protein activateds adenylate cyclase

4. adneylate cyclase conerts ATP to cAMP

5. cAMP activates protein kinases.

Term
first messenger
Definition
hormone/neurotransmitter
Term
what happens when a receptor activates a g protein?
Definition
the hormone binds to a receptor causing it to change shape and bind to a nearby, inactive g protein which is then activated as the GDP (guanosine diphosphate) bound to it is displaced by the high energy compound, GTP (guanosine triphoshphate).
Term
what happens when GTP bound to a protein is hydrolyzed?
Definition
the g protein cleaves the terminal phosphate group off GTP and becomes inactive once again
Term
what happens when an activated g protein (Gs) is bound to adenylate cyclase?
Definition
adenylate cylcase generates/converts cAMP (2nd messenger) from ATP
Term
cAMP has what affect on a cell?
Definition
as cAMP is free to diffuse throughout the cell, it triggers a cascade of cheimcal reactions by activating protein kinases
Term
protein kinases
Definition
enzymes that can catalyze hundreds of reactions within a cell whether they stimulate or inhibit.
Term
factor that inhibits TH
Definition
excessively high blood iodide concentration 
Term
phosphodiesterase
Definition
intracellular enzyme that rapidly inhibits the cAMP molecule and its responses so that there is no need for extracellular controls over hormones 
Term
adenohypophyseal hormones are synthesized and released by the?
Definition
hypothalamus
Term
what is the second messenger in the PIP2-calcium signaling mechanism?
Definition
intracellular calcium ions
Term
how does the PIP2-calcium signaling mechanism work?
Definition
a g protein (Gq) activates an enzyme called phospholipase C (membrane bound effector) which splits a plasma membrane phospholipid (PIP2) into two second messengers: DAG and IP3. DAG activates a protein kinase enzyme, which triggers responses in the cell while IPreleases Ca2+ from intracellular storage sites
Term

PIP2



DAG


IP3

Definition

phosphatidyl inositol bisphosphate


diacylglycerol 


inositol trisphosphate

Term
how does Ca2+ take on a second messenger role during a PIP2-calcium signaling mechanism?
Definition
it directly alters the activity of specific enzymes and channels or it binds to the intracellular regulatory protein calmodulin
Term
what happens once Ca2+ binds to camodulin during PIPcalcium signaling?
Definition
it ativates enzymes that amplify cellular response
Term
what is a second messenger for some hormones?
Definition
guanosine monophosphate (gCAMP)
Term
what is a hormone that works without a second messenger?
Definition
insulin
Term
insulin receptor
Definition
tyrosin kinase enzyme that is activated by autophosphylation when insulin binds
Term
autophosphylation
Definition
addition of phosphate to several of its own tyrosines
Term
what happens during an insulin mechanism?
Definition
insulin receptor is activated by autophosphylation when insulin binds, thus providing docking sites for intracelllular relay proteins which in turn, initiate a series of protein phosphylations that trigger cell responses
Term
what happens during direct gene activation (5)?
Definition

1. the steroid hormone diffuses through the plasma membrane and binds an intracellular receptor

2. the receptor homrone complex enters the nucleus

3. the receptor homrone complex binds a specific DNA region

4. binding initiates transcription of the gene to mRNA

5. the mRNA directs protein synthesis

Term
which amino acid based hormone doesn't use a second messenger?
Definition
the thyroid hormone
Term
target cell activation depends equally on what 3 things?
Definition

1. blood levels of hormone (how much)

2. relative number of receptors

3. affinity (strength) of binding between the hormone and the receptor

Term
up regulation
Definition
when persistently low levels of hormones cause target cells to form additional receptors for a particular hormone 
Term
down regulation
Definition
desensitize target cell so they respond less vigorously to hormonal stimlation, thus preventing them from overreacting to persistently high hormone levels
Term
negative feedback mechanism
Definition
most common homeostatic control mechanism which output shuts off original stimulus or reduces hormone intensity 
Term
what are the 3 endocrine gland stimuli?
Definition

1. humoral

2. neural

3. hormonal

Term
what is the simplest endocrine control 
Definition
humoral stimuli
Term
humoral stimuli
Definition
secretes hormone in direct resonse to changing blood levels of certain critical ions or proteins
Term
humora=humor
Definition
refers to various body fluids
Term
ie. of humoral stimuli
Definition

stimulus: low concentration of Ca2+ in capillary blood 


response: parathyroid gland secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH) to increase calcium

Term
neural stimuli
Definition
nerve fibers stimulate hormones
Term
ie. neural stimuli
Definition

stimulus: action potentials in preganglionic sympathetic fibers to adrenal medulla (stress)


response: nervouse system stimulates adrenal medulla to secrete (non)epinephrine

Term
hormonal stimulus
Definition
releasing and inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamus regulate the secretion of most pituitary hormones, and many anterior pituitary hormones in turn stimulate other endocrine organs (thyroid gland, adrenal cortex, and gonad) to release their hormones
Term
growth hormone (GH)
Definition
anabolic (tissue building) hormone that has metabolic and growth-promoting actions
Term
tropic hormone
Definition
hormone release caused by another hormone
Term
important relationship between nervous system modulation and the endocrine system
Definition
the nervous system makes certain adjustments to maintain homeostasis by overriding normal endocrine controls
Term
what are the 2 forms in which hormones circulate in the blood?
Definition
free or bound to a protein carrier
Term
which hormones travel through the blood attached to plasma proteins?
Definition
lipid-soluble hormones (steroids and thryroid hormones)
Term
the concentration of a circulating hormone in blood at any time reflects what?
Definition
the hormone rate of release and the speed at which it is inactivated and removed from the body
Term
how are hormones removed from the body?
Definition
some are rapidly degraded by enzymes in their target cells while others are removed from the blood by the kidneys or liver and delivered out by urine or broken down further and delivered by feces from the body
Term
half-life of hormone activity
Definition
the length of time for a hormone's blood level to decrease by half (response to expulsion from the body)
Term
permissiveness
Definition
situation in which one hormone cannot exert its full effects without another hormone being present
Term
synergism
Definition
occurs when more than one hormone produces the same effects at the target cell and their combined effects are amplified
Term
antagonism
Definition
occurs when one hormone opposes the action of another hormone
Term
which receptors are asscociated with almost all cells in the body?
Definition
TH receptors
Term
which receptors are only asscociated with certain cells of the adrenal cortex?
Definition
ACTH receptors
Term
pituitary gland
Definition
two-lobed, neuroendocrine gland that stores hormones produced by the hypothalamus and secretes nine major hormones
Term
where is the pituitary gland located? 
Definition
securely seated in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
Term
what is another name for the pituitary gland?
Definition
hypophysis
Term
infundibulum
Definition
funnel-shaped stalk that connects the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus 
Term
posterior pituitary
Definition
composed of axons from the hypothalamic neurons (neural tissue/fibers) that receives, stores and releases hormones from the hypothalamus such as oxcytocin and ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)
Term
what gland is not a true endocrine gland?
Definition
pituitary gland
Term
neurohypophysis
Definition
the posterior lobe plus the infundibulum region
Term
anterior pituitary
Definition
glandular tissue that manufactures and releases a number of hormones
Term
what is another name for the anterior pituitary?
Definition
adenohypophysis
Term
hypophyseal branches
Definition
part of the internal carotid arteries that deliver arterial blood to the pituitary and the veins leaving the pituitary drain into the dural sinuses
Term
where does the posterior lobe derive from?
Definition
part of the brain that is a downgrowth of hypothalamic tissue 
Term
hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract
Definition
nerve bundle that runs through the infundibulum and allows the anterior pituitary to maintain its neural connection to the hypothalamus
Term
paraventricular nuclei
Definition
hypothalamic, neurosecretory cell that synthesizes oxytocin and transports it along its axons to the capillary bed in the posterior pituitary for distribution throughout the body
Term

supraoptic nuclei

Definition

hypothalamic, neurosecretory cell that synthesizes anti-diuretic hormones and transports it along its axons to the capillary bed in the posterior pituitary for distribution throughout the body

 

Term
where does the anterior lobe originate from?
Definition
epithelial tissue as a superior outpocketing of the oral mucosa
Term
what is the relationship between the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the hypothalamus?
Definition
the anterior lobe adheres to the neurohypophyis and loses its connection with the oral mucosa, forming a vascular connection with the hypothalamus when it releases chemical stimuli via the hypophuseal portal system
Term
hypophyseal portal system 
Definition
unusual arrangement of blood vessels, in which the primary capillary plexus feeds into the  hypophyseal portal vein, which in turn, feed into the secondary capillary plexus ensuring that the minute quantities of amino acid based hormones released by the hypothalamus arrive rapidly at the anterior pituitary without being diluted by the systemic circulation
Term
where does the hypythalamic-hypophyseal tract arise from?
Definition
the neurons in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus
Term
inhibiting hormones
Definition
inhibit synthesis and hormone release 
Term
oxytocin
Definition

hormone synthesized in the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary which stimulates contraction of the uterus during childbirth and ejection of milk during nursing


upreg of their receptors as preg progresses

Term
antidiuretic hormone (ADH/vasopressin)
Definition
hormone produced by the hypothalamus and realeased by the posterior pituitary which stimulates the kidneys via cAMP to reabsorb more water to reduce urine volume and prevent dehydration
Term
6 anterior pituitary hormones
Definition

1. growth hormone (GH)

2. thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

3. adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

4. follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

5. luteinizing hormone (LH)

6. prolactin (PRL)


Term
diuresis
Definition
urine production
Term
osmoreceptors
Definition
continually monitor the solute concentration of the blood, thus, when solutes are too concentrated, they transmit excitatory impulses to hypothalamic neurons which release ADH
Term
which adenohypophyseal hormone does not use cAMP as a second messenger?
Definition
growth hormone (GH)
Term
which type of hormone action mechanism do the adenohypophyseal hormones use?
Definition
single transduction mechanism
Term
what are the 4 adenohypophyseal tropic hormones?
Definition

1. thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

2. adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

3. follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

4. luteinizing hormone (LH)


Term
somatotropic cells
Definition
of the anterior lobe that produce the growth hormone
Term
another name for the growth hormone is?
Definition
somatotropin
Term
GHRH
Definition
growth hormone-releasing hormone that stimulates the GH hormone
Term
GHIH
Definition
growth hormone-inhibiting hormone that antagonistically regulates the secretion of the GH
Term
what is another name for GHIH
Definition
somatostatin
Term
what cells does the GH target?
Definition
bone and muscle cells
Term
what does direct action of the GH promote?
Definition
protein synthesis, lipolysis and glycogenolysis
Term
lipolysis
Definition
the breakdown of stored fats into glycerol and fatty acids
Term
glycogenolysis
Definition
breakdown effect of glycogen to glucose
Term
most GH effects are mediated (indirect actions) by what?
Definition
insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) aka: somatomedins
Term
what are the actions required for growth that are stimulated by IGF?
Definition

1. stimulate uptake of amino acids (protein from the blood) for protein synthesis (DNA) which allows growth by cell division

2. stimulates uptake of sulfur into cartilage matrix (collagen) and deposition into bone matrix

Term
what inhibits GH release?
Definition
negative feedback from GH and IGF
Term
what causes long bone growth?
Definition
stimulation of the epiphyseal plate
Term
what happens when the skelatal muscles are stimulated?
Definition
the result is increased muscle mass
Term
gigantism
Definition
pre-pubertal hypersecretion of the GH which targets the still-active epiphyseal plate (growing children) causing the person to become abnormally tall (8ft/2.4m) but with realtively normal body proportions 
Term
acromegaly
Definition
post-pubertal hypersecretion of GH, targeting closed epiphyseal plates (adults) which causes overgrowth of bony areas still responsive to GH, namely bones of the hands, feet and face
Term
hypersecretion
Definition
results from an anterior pituitary tumor that churns out excessive GH
Term
pituitary dwarfism
Definition
hyposecretion of GH causing slow long bone growth causing the person to attain a maximum height of 4 feet (1.2m) with fairly normal body proportions
Term
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Definition
tropic hormone that stimulates normal development and secretory activity of the thyroid gland and it's release follows the hypothalamic-pituitary target endocrine feedback loop
Term
what is another name for TSH?
Definition
thyrotropin
Term
thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
Definition
hypothalamic peptide that triggers the release of TSH from thyrotropic cells of the anterior pituitary (adenopophysis) and stimulates the production of TH and the normal development/secretory activity of the thyroid gland (cold infant)
Term
what inhibits the release of TSH?
Definition
GHIH and rising blood levels of thyroid hormones that act on both the pituitary and the hypothalamus
Term
adrenocorticotropic 
Definition
split from the prohormone, pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and secreted by the corticotropic cells of the anterior pituitary
Term
what is another name for ACTH?
Definition
corticotropin
Term
prohormone
Definition
a larger precursor molecule
Term
ACTH stimulates what to release what?
Definition

adrenal cortex

corticosteroid and glucocorticoids

Term
ACTH cycle (2)
Definition

1. elicited by the hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) with levels peaking right before one wakes 

2. rising levels of glucocorticoids feed back and block secretion of CRH and ACTH


Term
what are some in/external factors that alter the normal ACTH rythm by triggering CRH?
Definition
fever, hypoglycemia and all types of stressors
Term
hypothryoid disorders are a result of (4)?
Definition

1. thyroid gland defects

2. inadequate TSH or TRH release (secondary)

3. gland is removed surgically

4. dietary iodine is inadequate

Term
what hormones are considered gonadotropins?
Definition
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and lutenizing hormone (LH) 
Term
gonadotropins
Definition
gonadotrope cells that regulate the function of the gonads (testes and ovaries)
Term
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Definition
stimulats the production of gametes (sperm or eggs) in both sexes and works with LH to cause an egg-containing ovarian follicle to mature
Term
lutenizing hormone (LH)
Definition
promotes prodution of gonadal hormones and works with FSH to trigger ovulation and promote synthesis and release of ovarian hormones (estrogen/progesterone) as well as stimulates the interstitial cells of the testes to produce testosterone
Term
LH is sometimes referred to as what?
Definition
Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH)
Term
Gonadotropins and puberty
Definition

1. they are absent from the blood before puberty 

2. during puberty, the gonadotropic cells activiated and the levels rise in the blood causing the gonads to mature

Term
gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnHR)
Definition
produced by the hypothalamus in both sexes that prompts gonadotropin release, triggering gonadal hormone release feed back to suppress FSH and LH release
Term
prolactin (PRL)
Definition
protein hormone produced by prolactin cells that stimulate milk production by the breast (purpose not well known in males)
Term
PRL is structurally similar to what hormone?
Definition
GH
Term
what prevents prolactin secretion?
Definition
prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH)
Term
what is another name for PIH?
Definition
dopamine
Term
what leads to PRL release?
Definition

1. decrease in PIH secretion

2. TRH

Term
PRL comes from what type of cells?
Definition
lactotrope cells
Term
what is the effect of PRH on females?
Definition
PRH levels rise and fall with estrogen levels during the menstral cycle and rise towards the end of pregnancy
Term
what PRL hormone dominates in males?
Definition
prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH)
Term
hyperprolactinemia
Definition
most frequent abnomality of anterior pituitary tumors that causes inappropriate lactations, lack of menses, infertility/impotency.
Term
how is ADH inhibited externally?
Definition

alcohol (ETOH) consumption causing water loss

Term
what happens when there is a high concentration of ADH/SIADH?
Definition

the body attempts to conserve water called vasoconstriction and may increase blood pressure called vasopressin/

1. meningitis

2. hypothalamic injury

3. post-op neuro

4. general anesthesia

5. cerebral adema


Term
what happens when there is a low solute concentration in relation to ADH?
Definition
ADH is not released and water is released from the body
Term
thyroid gland
Definition
largest, pure, butterfly-shaped endocrine gland that is located in the anterior neck, on the trachea, just inferior to the cricothyroid cartilage/larynx
Term
isthmus
Definition
connets two lateral lobes of the thyroid gland
Term
the thryoid gland is composed of what?
Definition
hollow, spherical follicles
Term
follicular cells
Definition
the walls of each follicle of the thyroid gland are fromed largely by these cuboidal or squamous epithelial cells that produce thyroglublin
Term
lumen
Definition
the central cavity of the thryoid follicle that stores colloid
Term
colloid
Definition
an amber colored, sticky material consisting of thryoglobulin molecules with attached iodine atoms in which the thyroid hormone is derived from
Term
parafollicular cells
Definition
lie in the follicular epithelium but protrude into the soft connective tissue that separaates and surrounds the thryoid follicles, producing calcitonin
Term
thyroid hormone
Definition
body's major metabolic hormone containing thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) that affects almost every cell in the body
Term
what is the difference between T3  and T4?
Definition
T4  2 linked DITs with 4 bound iodine atoms while T is a coupling of MIT and DIT with 3 bound iodine atoms
Term
how is T formed?
Definition
formed at the target tissues by conversion of T to T3
Term
What are the effects of the thyroid hormone (3)?
Definition

1. increased metabolic rate (calorgenic effect) = heat production by transcription of genes concerned with glucose oxidation

2. promotion of normal growth and development

4. glucose oxidation by maintaining BP by increasing the number of adrenergic receptors in the blood vessels


Term
synthesis of the thryoid hormone (7)
Definition

1. thyroglobulin is synthesized and discharged into the follicle lumen

2. iodine is trapped

3. iodide is oxidized to iodine

4. iodine is attached to tyrosine forming DIT and MIT

5. iodinated tyrosines are linked together to form T and T4

6. thyroglobulin colloid is endocytosed

7. lysosomal enzymes cleave T4  and T3 from thyroglobulin and the hormones diffuse from the follicular cell into the bloodstream

Term
MIT and DIT
Definition
monoiodotyrosine and diiodotyrosine (attachment of 1 or 2 iodines to a tyrosine)
Term
process of T3  and T transport and release (4)
Definition

1. the Ts immediately binds to thyroxine-binding globulins (TBGs) and other transport proteins produced by the liver

2. both Ts bind to target tissue receptors (T3  10x more active making it bind more avidly)

3. peripheral tissues convert T4  to T3  by removing one iodine atom

Term
myxedema (8)
Definition

hyperthyroid syndrome causing

1. low metabolic rate

2. feeling chilled

3. constipation

4. thick, dry skin

5. puffy eyes

6. edema

7. lethargy

8. mental sluggishness


Term
goiter
Definition
an enlarged protruding thryoid gland which occurs if myxedema results from lack of iodine
Term
cretenism (3)
Definition

severe hypothyroidism in infants causing

1. metal retardation

2. short, disproportionate body

3. thick tongue and neck



Term
Grave's disease (6)
Definition

most common hyperthyroid, autoimmune condition causing 

1. high metabolic rate

2. sweating

3. rapid, irregular heartbeat

4. nervousness

5. weight loss despite diet

6. possibly protruding eyeballs



Term
how does Grave's disease function?
Definition
individual makes abnormal antibodies directed against thyroid follicular cells and rather than marking these cells for destruction as antibodies normally do, these antibodies mimic TSH and continuously stimulate TH release
Term
calcitonin
Definition
polypeptide hormone released by parafollicular/C cells of the thyroid gland in response to a rise in blood Ca2+ (calcium) levels
Term
calcitonin targets what and does what?
Definition
targets the skeleton where it inhibits bone resorption and stimulats Ca2+ uptake into the bone
Term
when is calcitonin most active?
Definition
during childhood
Term
parathyroid gland location
Definition
tiny yellow-brown on posterior surface of the thyroid gland
Term
parathyroid glandular cells
Definition
arranged in thick, branching cords containing oxyphil cells (unkown purpose) and a large number of smaller parathyroid cells (chief cells) that secrete PTH
Term
parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Definition
protein hormone that controls calcium balance in the blood
Term
what is another name for PTH?
Definition
parathormone
Term
what triggers PTH release?
Definition
falling blood calcium levels
Term
what are the PTH target organs?
Definition
skeleton, kidneys and intestines
Term
PTH release does what (3)?
Definition

1. stimulates osteoclast (bone resorbing cells) activity

2. enhances reabsorption of calcium and excretion of phosphate (PO4 3-) by kidneys

3. promotes conversion of Vit D to calcitrol as it is needed for calcium absorption by the sm. intestines

Term
hyperparathryoidism causes what diseases (3)?
Definition

1. osteitis fibrosa cystica

2. hypercalcemia

3. metastatic calcification

Term
osteitis fibrosa cystica (2)
Definition

1. bones have moth eaten appearance on x-ray

2. bones fracture randomly 

Term
hypercalcemia (3)
Definition

abnormally elevated blood calcium levels that 

1. depresses the nervous system causing abnormal reflexes and weak skelatal muscles

2. excess calcium salts precipitate in the kidney causing stones


Term
metastatic calcification
Definition
calcium deposits form in soft tissues throughout the body and severely impair vital organ function
Term
hyperthyroidism is caused by?
Definition
rare but results from a parathyroid gland tumor
Term
hypoparathyroidism is cause by?
Definition
parathyroid trauma or removal
Term
hypothyroidism causes?
Definition
hypocalcemia
Term
hypocalcemia
Definition
results from low calcium levels in the blood making neurons more excitable causing tingling sensations, tetany (twitching muscle), and convulsions when left untreated can cause paralysis or death.
Term
adrenal gland location
Definition
paired, pyramid shaped organs perched atop the kidneys, where they are enclosed in fibrous capsule and cushion of fat
Term
what is another name for the adrenal glands?
Definition
suprarenal glands
Term
adrenal medulla
Definition
inner knot of nervous tissue that is part of the sympethetic nervous system that synthesizes 24+ steroid hormones called corticosteroids
Term
adrenal cortex
Definition
outer, encapsulating the medulla and forming the bulk of the gland, with its glandular tissue forming from embryonic mesoderm
Term
what are the 3 layers of the adrenal cortex?
Definition

zona glomerulosa

zona fasciculata

zona reticularis

Term
zona glomerulosa
Definition
small cell clusters form this supericial layer producing mineralocorticoids 
Term
mineralocorticoids
Definition

hormones that help control the balance of mineral salt and water in the blood 

(aldosterone!)

Term
zona fasciculata
Definition
cells of the middle layer that are arranged in linear cords that produce metabolic hormones and glucocorticoids
Term
zona reticularis
Definition
cells of the inner most layer that abutt the adrenal medulla, have a netlike arrangement, producing small amounts of adrenal sex hormones (gonadocorticoids)
Term
gonadocorticoids
Definition
produce sex hormones
Term
glucocorticoids 
Definition
adjust glucose consumption due to intake of intermittent food, influence energy metabolism, maintain BP by increasing vasoconstrictors and help the body resist stressors
Term
adrenal cortical hormones (CORT) are what kind of hormones?
Definition
steroids
Term
aldosterone (4)
Definition

1. most potent mineralocorticoid

2. involved in electrolyte balance through regulation of sodium

3. reduces loss of sodium (Na+) and stimulates reabsorption by the kidney's distal tubules

4. stimulates transcription of sodium, potassium and ATPase (NA/K Pump), and regultion of K+, H+, HCO3-, and Cl-

Term
what are the 4 mechanisms that control secretion of aldosterone?
Definition

1. renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mech.

2. plasma concentrations of potassium

3. ACTH

4. atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

Term
renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism (4 steps)
Definition

release of aldosterone when BP low

1. when blood pressure (volume) falls, specialized cells in the kidneys are excited

2. the cells respond, releasing renin into the blood

3. renin cleaves off part of the plasma protein angiotensinogen triggering an enzymatic cascade that forms angiontensin II

4. this stimulates the glomerulosa cells to release aldosterone

Term
plasma concentrations of potassium
Definition
fluctuating blood levels of potassium (K+) directly influence the zona glomerulosa cells in the adrenal cortex and when potassium rises/sodium decreases, adolsterone is released.
Term
ACTH mechanism (3 steps)
Definition

1. under stress, the hypothalamus secretes more corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) 

2. rise in CRH causes a rise in ATCH blood levels which increases the rate of aldosterone in small amounts

3. increased blood volume/pressure helps deliver nutrients and respiratory gasses during the stressful period

Term
artrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) (5 steps)
Definition

1. hormone secreted by the heart when BP rises

2. finetunes blood pressure and sodium-water balance of the body

3. inhibits RAA mechanism (block renin/aldosterone) 

4. enhances water and sodium reabsorption 

5. decreases BP by allowing sodium and water to flow out of the body via urine

Term
aldosteronism occurs from?
Definition
hypersecretion of aldosterone and adrenal tumors
Term
aldosteronism symptoms (2)
Definition

1. hypertension and edema due to excessive sodium and water retention

2. accelerated excretion of potassium ions causing muscle weakness and paralysis

Term
glucocorticoid control (3)
Definition

1. stimulated by ACTH

2. negative feedback by cortisol (high levels) inhibits CRH and ASTH secretion

3. under stress, SNS overrides negative feedback causing and increase in CRH, ACTH and cortisol.

Term
what 3 hormones are glucocorticoids?
Definition

cortisol

cortisone

corticosterone

Term
gluconeogenesis
Definition
 cortisol and its metabolic effect forms glucose from fats and proteins and increased BP (enhancement of epinephrine's vasoconstricitve effects)
Term
causes of Cushing's syndrome (4)?
Definition

1. excess ACTH-releasing pituitary tumor

2. ACTH-releasing malignancy of the lungs, pancreas, or kidneys

3. tumor of the adrenal cortex

4. clinical administration of glucocorticoid drugs

Term
Cushing's syndrom characterizations (4)
Definition

1. persistent elevated blood glucose levels (steroid diabetes)

2. dramatic losses in mucsle and bone protein

3. water and salt retention

4. hypertension and edema

Term
Cushingoid signs (6)
Definition

1. swollen "moon" face 

2. redistribution of fat to the abdomen and the posterior neck (buffalo hump)

3. easy bruising

4. poor wound healing 

5. severe infection before recognizable signs

6. muscle weakness and spontaneous fractures 

Term
Addison's disease
Definition
hyposecretory disorder of the adrenal cortex that usually involves a deficit in both gluco and mineralcorticoids
Term
Addison's disease symptoms (5)
Definition

1. lose weight

2. plasma glucose and sodium levels drop

3. potassium levels rise

4. severy dehydration

5. hypotension 


Term
gonadocorticoids 
Definition
include androstenedione and dehydroepiandosterone (DHEA) that are weak androgens secreted by the adrenal cortex when stimulated by ACTH which are fairly insignificant until secreted by the gonads in large amounts during puberty 
Term
androgens
Definition
male hormones
Term
adrenogenital syndrome 
Definition
hypersecretion of gonadocorticoids that causes masculinzation which is hardly noticeable in men but causes young boy's reproductive organs to mature and secondary sex characteristics to appear early and high sex drive where females develop a beard, masculine distribution of body hair and the clitoris resembles a small penis
Term
medullary chromaffin cells
Definition
crowd around blood-filled capillaries and sinusoids that are modified postganglionic sympathetic neurons that synthesize the catecholamines nor/epinephrine via a molecular sequence from tyrosine to dopamine to NE to epinephrine
Term
catecholamines
Definition
einephrine and norepinephrine involved in fight or flight response (adrenaline) which are controlled by the SNS increasing glucose levels, BP and vasoconstiction
Term
hyperglycemia (6)
Definition

hypersecretion of catecholamines arising from a medullary chromaffin cell tumor that causes uncontrolled sympathetic nervous system such as

1. elevated blood glucose

2. increased metabolic rate

3. rapid heartbeat and palpitations

4. hypertension

5. intense nervousness 

6. sweating

Term
pancreas anatomy/location
Definition
triangular gland behind the stomach that has both endo/exocrine function
Term
pancreas histology
Definition
made up of large numbers of acinar cells and small clusters of alpha and beta cells (islets of Langerhans)
Term
islets of Langerhans
Definition
scattered pancreatic islets along the acinar cells that are tiny cell clusters that produce pancreatic hormones
Term
acinar cells
Definition
exocrine function of the pancreas that are digestive enzymes
Term
beta cells
Definition

part of the islets of Langerhans that synthesize insulin appropriately during fasting and fed states

Term
alpa cells
Definition
part of the islets of Langerhans that synthesize glucagon appropriately during fasting and fed states
Term
what other peptides do alpha and beta cells produce?
Definition
somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide
Term
glucagon
Definition
29-amino acid polypeptide, hyperglycemic hormone that is released in the blood that targets the liver
Term
effects of glucagon and the liver (3)
Definition

glycogenolysis

gluconeogenesis

increased blood glucose levels by liver cells

Term
glycogenolysis
Definition
breakdown of glycogen to glucose
Term
gluconeogenesis 
Definition
synthesis of glucose from lactic acid and from non-carbohydrate molecules
Term
what is a secondary effect of glucagon and the liver?
Definition
lowering of blood levels of amino acids as the liver cells sequester these molecules to make new glucose molecules 
Term
what stimulates glucagon release (3)?
Definition
humoral stimuli such as falling blood glucose levels and the sympathetic nervous system activity and rising amino acid levels
Term
how is glucagon release suppressed (3)?
Definition

rising glucose levels

insulin

somatostatin

Term
insulin anatomy
Definition
small 51-amino acid protein linked by disulfide chains and synthesized as part of a larger polypeptide chain called proinsulin where they are clipped in the secretory vesicles of the pancreas and released by the beta cells
Term
what influences insulin secretion (4)?
Definition

1. elevated blood glucose levels

2. rising levels of amino/fatty acids

3. release of acetylcholine by parasympathetic nerve fibers

4. hyperglycemic hormones (glucagon, epinephrine, GH, thyroxine, or glucocorticoids)

Term
insulin
Definition
lowers blood glucose levels especilly after eating as well as influences protein and fat metabolism
Term
what are the 3 ways insulin lowers blood glucose levels?
Definition

1. enhances membrane transport of glucose into most body cells, esp muscle and fat cells

2. inhibits the breakdown of glycogen to glucose

3. inhibits the conversion of amino acids or fats to glucose

Term
what roles does insulin play in the brain (4)?
Definition

1. neuronal development 

2. feeding behavior

3. learning

4. memory


Term
after glucose enters a target cell, insulin binding triggeres enzymatic effects that (3)?
Definition

1. catalyze the oxidation of glucose for ATP production

2. join glucose molecules together to from glycogen

3. convert glucose to fat (particulary adipose tissue)

Term
what suppresses insulin release (2)?
Definition

somatostatin

activation of the sympathetic nervous sys

Term
diabetes mellitus (DM)
Definition
hyposecretion of insulin where blood glucose levels remain high after eating because glucose in unable to enter most cell tissues
Term
type 1 diabetes mellitus
Definition
when insulin is absent 
Term
type 2 diabetes mellitus 
Definition
when insulin is present but its effects are deficient
Term
lipidemia 
Definition
when sugars cannot be used as cellular fuel, more fats are mobilized, resulting in high fatty acid levels in the blood 
Term
ketones/ketone bodies
Definition
collections of organic, fatty acid metabolites 
Term
metabolites
Definition
acetoacetic acid, acetone, and others 
Term
ketoacidosis 
Definition
when ketones accumulate in the blood and blood pH drops which leads to ketonuria
Term
ketonuria
Definition
when ketone bodies begin to spill into the urine
Term
what are the 3 cardinal signs of diabete mellitus?
Definition

polyuria

polydipsia

polyphagia

Term
polyuria
Definition
excessive glucose in the blood leads to excessive glucose in the kidney filtrate where it acts as an osmotic diuretic (inhibits water reabsorption by the kidney tubules) which ultimately results in a huge urine output that decreases blood volume and dehydration
Term
polydipsia
Definition
excessive thirst due to serious electrolyte loss as the body rids itself of excess ketone bodies
Term
polyphlagia
Definition
excessive hunger because the body cannot use the acceptable level of glucose provided as it consumes it as fat and protein stores for energy metabolism instead
Term
hypoglycemia
Definition

overdose of insulin that releases hyperglycemic hormones causing

1. anxiety

2. nervousness

3. tremors

4. weakness

5. insufficient glucose delivery to the brain

6. disorinetation

7. unconsciousness

8. death

Term
pineal gland anatomy/location
Definition
tiny, pine cone shape that hangs from the roof of the third ventricle of the diencephalon
Term
melatonin
Definition
an amine hormone derived from serotonin secreted by the pineal gland that make us drowsy as it has a daily cycle and produces protective antioxidant and detoxification molecules within the cells
Term
pinealocytes 
Definition
secretory cells arranged in compact cords and clusters containing radiopaque calcium salts (brain/pineal sand)(in adults)  
Term
what controls melatonin?
Definition
visual pathways
Term
what is the target of melatonin?
Definition
suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus as it has the largest supply of melatonin receptors
Term
thymus anatomy/location
Definition
lobulated gland deep to the upper third of the sternum
Term
thymus hormonal products and their effects
Definition
thymopoietins, thymic factor and thmosins which are associated with T-lymphocyte development and immune response
Term
heart hormone
Definition
specialized cells produce atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) (decreases sodium in extracellular fluid)
Term
gastronintestinal tract hormone
Definition
enteroendocrine (paraneurons) cells release paracrines that regulate several digestive functions (seratonin)
Term
placenta hormone
Definition
estrogen, progesterone, and HCG
Term
kidney hormone
Definition
erythropoietin which signals bone marrow to increase production of red blood cells and renin which initiates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism
Term
skin hormones
Definition
produces cholecalciferol (inactive Vit D) becomes calcitrol (absorb calcium from food) when activated by ultraviolet light
Term
adipose tissue hormones
Definition
release leptin which acts on CNS to produce satiety and stimulate increased energy expenditure
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