1. Phagocytes (consume things w/ no markers)

2. Skin

3. Mucous in respiratory tract

4. Acid in stomach

5. Acidic secretions from vagina

food vacuole

digested fragments of the antigen

MHCII markers

divide repeatedly clones

immune receptors specific to that antigen

plasma cells

make billions of copies of immune receptors & put them into blood & lymph as antibodies

4 strands, 2 heavy and 2 light,

disulfate bond

Base

Ends

_____ of heavy and light chains are constant,

_____ of the chains are variable

1. Neutralization (blocks virus binding sites, coats bacteria)

2. Agglutination (clumping together of antigens)

3. Precipitation of soluble antigens

(1-3 trigger opsonization, thus enchancing phagocytosis)

4. Complement fixation (works on celluler antigen eg bacteria not virus, complement proteins in blood activate and make hole in bacteria's cell membrane, lysing the cell)

variable part of chain

light part of chain

mast cell membranes

WBCs moved out of blood into tissue membranes,

histamines, dilation & inflammation (brings in more WBCs) 

300 copies

20

6

5

V segment has ___ copies for variable regions of heavy chain,

D-segment has ___

J-segment has ____

Constant has _____ 

36,000 (300x20x6)

1,200

 4.32x10⁷

_____ possible combos for variable H chain

____ combos for variable L chain

Total possible combos 

Red bone marrow

bone marrow

thymus gland 

B & T cells form in ____

B cells mature in _____

T cells mature in ___ 

Dendritic cells, Macrophages & b cells

MHCII 

______, ____ and ____ can be presenter cells

Presenter cells have _____ proteins to activate helper T cells 

CD8

MHCI,   cell surfaces 

Interleukin 1 (a cytokine), helper T-cells

Interleukin 2, cytotoxic t-cells & b-cells 

1. microglia

2. alveolar macrophages

3. histocytes

4. Kupfer cells 

Names of site specific phagocytes:

1. in CNS

2. in lungs

3. in spleen & lymph nodes

4. in liver 

Interferons

cause neighboring cells to interfere w/ viral replication & act as nonspecific stimulus for macrophages 

Natural killer cells

immune receptors,  MHCI markers on cell is abnormal or absent 

Type A= anti-B antibody

Type B= anti-A antibody

Type AB = no antibodies

Type O = anti-A and anti-B 

Rh

Rh- (aka A-)

Rh+ (aka A+)

Basophils & mast cells, histamine release,

relaxation, constriction

bronchioles 

less, less

more fluid movement 

1. High pressure to localize (keep blood there)

2. Allow WBCs to attack specific location 

Swelling of an infection allows for:

1.

2. 

IL-4

IgE

IgG 

1. T-dependent antigens

2. T-independent antigens 

1. Need T-cells for response

2. Vigorous response w/o T-helper cells 

1. Ventilation (bulk flow)

2. External respiration (diffusion)

3. Circulation (bulk flow)

4. Internal respiration (diffusion)

1. Thoracic cavity expands (intercostal muscles contract, diaphragm is lowered)

2. Parietal pleurae is stretched, which

3. Stretches visceral pleurae

4. Lungs are thus stretched, lowering pressure of alveoli 

1. Rib cage rebounds after external intercostals relax

2. Diaphragm relaxes and rebounds to dome shape

3. Elastic lung helps exhalation 

1. Contract internal intercostals to depress rib cage

2. Contract abdominal muscles to force viscera up against diaphragm 

Surfactant

poor alveolar ventilation

smooth muscles of pulmonary arterioles vasoconstrict 

poor circulation

smooth muscles of of bronchioles dilate 

1. Nose, mouth, & pharynx (lg on hairs, 10u or more on mucous)

2. Walls of bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar ducts (3-10u)

3. Alveoli (>0.3u particles diffuse into blood or are suspended in aerosols and exhaled)

Purification of air occurs at (sizes of particles settled here):

1.

2.

3. 

1. Swallowing of mucous (moved upward by cilia to pharynx)

2. Sneezing 

1. Engulfed by lymphocytes

2. Remain permanently encapsulated on surface

21% O₂

0.03% CO₂

78% N₂

1% Argon 

ppO₂ = 159 mmHg

 ppCO₂= 0.3 mmHg

37 deg

47 mmHg

150 mmHg 

1. solubility of gas in liquid

2. temp (colder = more soluble)

3. Partial pressure of gas in air phase in contact w/ liquid (high pressure = more soluble)

4. Saliinity (saltier = less soluble) 

1. ppO2=159mmHg, ppCO2=0.3mmHg

2. ppO2=150mmHg

3. ppO2=105mmHg, ppCO2=40mmHg

4. ppO2=120mmHg, ppCO2=32mmHg 

5. P_O2=40mmHg, P_CO2=46mmHg

6. P_O2=100mmHg, P_CO2=40mmHg 

ppO2 & ppCO2 of air:

1. Entering nose

2. Entering lungs

3. In alveoli

4. Exhaled

5. Arterial blood to lungs

6. venous blood leaving lungs 

1. Small amt is dissolved

2. 98% is attached to hemoglobin in RBCs 

1. Made of 4 protein globins (2 alpha, 2 beta), each surrounds 1 heme

2. Each heme contains iron that binds to an O2 molecule

3. Binding is reversible and depends on pO2 

Properties of Hb

1.

2.

3. 

increased 2,3-DPG, lower pH (Bohr shift), higher temp

allows for decreased Hb affinity for O2 (easier unloading of O2 at tissues)

1. Only 1 heme instead of 4

2. No heme-heme interaction; so affinity for O2 is high (shift left)

3. Found in striated muscle cells (skeletal/cardiac)  to enhance diffusion of O2 thru cytoplasm to mitochondria

1. Peripheral receptors (detect CO2, H+ in blood)

-aortic bodies

-carotid bodies

2. Central receptors in medulla (detect CO2, H+ in CSF) 

Reflex that inhibits overinflation of the lungs (inhibits inspiration centers in the medulla)

Lack of stretching during expiration inhibits expiratory centers 

Helps regulate resting ventilation in newborns;

Not functional in adults at resting tidal volumes, but involved in respiratory control at high tidal volumes 

remain constant in blood

rate and depth of ventilation increase 

1. Neural control b/c rate increases immediately

2. Chemical message as well b/c ventilation remains elevated after exercise ceases 

1. Hb loading may be impaired

2. Hb unloading is enhanced (2,3 DPG production stimulated by low P_O2)

3. Amount of O₂ in blood unchanged b/c bone marrow produces more Hb and RBCs 

pleurae

peritoneum

parietal peritoneum

visceral peritoneum 

Serous membranes in thorax are known as

in abdomen are known as 

lines body wall

lines organs 

glottis

epiglottis 

alcohol and aspirin

proteins & fats, acidic environment 

reflux           stomach acid

position of gastroesophageal sphincter is altered during pregnancy 

Heartburn is known as ____ and is caused by ____

This is common when ____ 

1. goblet cells - secrete mucus

2. parietal cells- secrete HCl; helps absorb vitamin B12 (needed for maturation of RBCs)

3. chief cells- secrete pepsinogen

4. G cells - secrete gastrin

1. Higher affinity for O2 (shifted to left) b/c fetal Hb can't bind to 2,3 DPG

2. Allowed O2 to be transferred from maternal to fetal blood 

1. Denaturing proteins

2. Form pepsin from pepsinogen

3. Activate pepsin

4. Activate lipase secreted by salivary gland 

HCl is used for:

1-4 

1. Mucus (alkaline) protects lining

2. Tight junctions of epithelial cells

3. Rapid replacement of epithelial cells 

There is no self-digestion b/c

1-3 

1. long tube

2. villi (each containing central lacteal surrounded by capillaries)

3. microvilli (brush border) 

1. Cecum (pouch at entry pt of ileum)

2. vermiform appendix (contains lymphatic tissue)

3. ileocecal valve (prevents backflow of chyme into ileum)

4. colon (ascending, transverse, descending)

5. rectum (terminal portion)

Anal canal

Internal anal sphincter

External anal sphincter 

Terminal portion of rectum

This part has smooth muscles

this has striated muscles 

Bile canaliculi

hepatic ducts, common bile duct

 sphincter of Oddi

gall bladder, cystic duct 

1. Bile production

2. Detox of blood

3. Metabolic regulation

4. Production of plasma proteins 

Bilirubin

spleen or bone marrow

glucoronic acid

urobilinogen, gives feces dark color and urine its yellow color 

Breakdown product of heme groups (minus iron), transported to liver from ___ or ____

At liver, it is conjugated w/ ____ and then bacteria in intestines convert it to ____ which ____ 

Acinar cells secrete inactive digestive enzymes, duct cells secrete HCO3- to neutralize acid chyme from stomach

Islets of Langerhans secrete insulin and glucagon

Pancreas

Exocrine part & function

Endocrine part & function

1. Proteases (eg trypsinogen into trypsin, which activates chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypeptidase into chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidase)

2. Amylase, lipases, nucleases (active, but need ions or bile)

1. Pacemaker cells spontaneously depolarize, causing contraction

2. If stretching present, increased contractions (stretch receptors feedback via ANS) 

1. Cephalic phase (vagal stimulation of parietal, chief, G cells, increased stomach blood flow, salivation-- triggered by sight, taste, smell)

2.  Gastric phase (G cell secrete gastrin, parietal secrete HCl, & chief cells secrete pepsinogen in presence of protein fragments)

3. Intestinal phase - Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) produced to stop emptying into duodenum if too full 

Cholecystokini (CCK)

pancreatic enzymes by acinar cells 

1. Secretin

2. CCK

3. Nervous input from stretched duodenum causes gall bladder to contract 

Alpha: glucagon

beta: insulin

delta: somatostatin 

In islets of Langerhans:

alpha, beta, and delta cells produce 

Insulin: 1. Promotes uptake of glucose into cells

2. Promotes uptake of amino acids into cells and conversion into proteins

Glucagon: Promotes glycogen breakdown (to maintain glucose levels when low) 

Purpose of insulin

Purpose of glucagon 

Parasympathetic input to beta cells

Sympathetic input to alpha cells 

Insulin secretion controlled by  ___

Glucagon controlled by ____ 

1. Stretching of duodenum

2. Osmotic increase in contents

3. Presence of fats in lumen

Also stimulates beta cells to secrete insulin 

After meal, 170 mg/100 ml plasma

During fast 50mg %

Too high = dmg cells

low = not enough fuel for brain metabolism/function 

Range of blood glucose concen

If too high, then

too low, then 

Type I- beta cells of islets of langerhans are destroyed so lack of insulin

Type II-decreased tissue sensitivity to insulin 

Type I diabetes is

Type II is 

Glucose becomes alpha glycerol phosphate or pyruvate, which is converted into acteyl CoA and then fatty acids.   3 fatty acids plus alpha glycerol phosphate becomes a triglyceride

1. Fatty acids (glucagon w/o insulin stimulates lipolysis)

2. Ketone bodies (glucagon stimulates liver enzymes to form ketones from fatty acids- known as ketogenesis)

1. Epinephrine

2. Glucocorticoids 

from medulla

Similar to glucagon: glycogenolysis and lipolysis 

cortex

1. Stimulated via ACTH from ant. pituitary in response to exercise/fasting

2. Promotes lipolysis and ketogenesis

3. Stimulates liver to make enzyes necessary for gluconeogenesis

4. Stimulates amino acid release from muscles (substrate for gluconeogenesis) 

Glucocorticoids come from ____  and effects

1. Secreted as T4, converted to active form T3 (thyroxine)

2. Stimulates cellular metabolism (inc rate of Na/K pump)

3. Acts via DNA to increase protein production-- necessary for anabolism/growth of skeleton, muscles, CNS

Somatotrophin

increased amino acid concen and decreased glucose conc (aka after protein meal and after a fast)

promotoes anabolism of proteins

promotes breakdown of adipose  

GH is like insulin b/c

and like glucagon b/c 

Stimulates liver production of intermediate hormones (somatomedins)

Somatomedins stimulate chondrocytes to lay down cartilage in growth zones of bone (which later ossify)