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Anatomy and Physiology Test 16-19
a&P
136
Biology
Undergraduate 2
09/26/2012

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Term
hormone
Definition
chemical substances secreted by cells into the extracellular fluids that regulate specific body functions
Term
endocrine gland
Definition
ductless glands that empty their hormonal products directly into the blood
Term
endocrinology
Definition
study of hormones and endocrine glands
Term
Target cell
Definition
cell that has receptors for a particular hormone and therefore is able to respond to it
Term
Half life
Definition
the length of time for a hormones blood level to decrease by half
Term
Anterior Pituitary
Definition
an endocrine gland located beneath the hypothalamus that manufactures and released many hormones such as growth hormone.
Term
Posterior pituitary
Definition
An endocrine gland locates beneath the hypothalamus that released neurohormones such as oxytocin.
Term
Tropin
Definition
hormones that regulate the secretory action of other endocrine glands
Term
Diabetes insipidus-
Definition
result of ADH deficiency. Syndrome marked by the output of huge amounts of urine and intense thirst
Term
Diabetes mellitus
Definition
insulin deficiency causes large amounts of blood glucose to be lost in the urine.
Term
Goiter
Definition
when myxedema results from lack of iodine the thyoid gland enlarges and protrudes
Term
Adrenal Cortex
Definition
is an endocrine gland located atop the kidney that produces and releases steroid hormones such as cortisol
Term
Adrenal medulla
Definition
is an endocrine gland located atop the kidney that synthesize epinephrine and norepinephrine
Term
Mineralicorticoid
Definition
hormones that help control the balance of minerals and water in the blood
Term
Glucocorticoid
Definition
metabolic hormones
Term
Amino Acid
Definition
o Have receptors on target cell membrane. They change the protein. Amino acids bind to receptor cell surface e and then changes a g protein
o Stored after it Is produced
o Acts relatively more quickly than the other
o Changes events in cytoplasm of target cell/ existing proteins
o A chain of amino acids
o Receptor is on target cell membrane
o Acts at very low concentration
o Catergory that includes epinephrine and insulin and thyroid stimulating hormone
Term
Steroids
Definition
o Receptors inside target cell. Change the gene before the protein.
o Made from cholesterol
o Modifies gene expression in target cell
o Receptor is inside target cell
o Act at very low concentration
o Category that include estrogen and aldosterone
Term
steroid hormone arriving at its target cell and gene expression changing
Definition
1) The steroid hormone diffuses through the plasma membrane and binds an intracellular receptor
2) The receptor hormone complex enter the nucleus
3) The receptor hormone complex binds a hormone response element (a specific DNA sequence)
4) Binding initiates transcription of the gene to mRNA
5) The mRNA directs protein synthesis
Term
Growth hormone
Definition
site of release: anterior pituitary. Site of action: everywhere. Stimulates secretion of hormones that stimulate body growth and metabolism
Term
ADH
Definition
Site of release: posterior pituitary. Site of action: kidneys. Influences body water balance. Causes kidneys to reabsorb more water decreasing urine volume
Term
thyroid hormone
Definition
Site of release: Thyroid gland. Site of action: everywhere. Controls rate of body metabolism and cellular oxidation
Term
Cortisol
Definition
Site of release: Adrenal Cortex. Site of action: everywhere. Enables the body to resist long term stressors
Term
Insulin
Definition
Site of release: pancreas. Site of action: most body cells. decreases the blood glucose level when high.
Term
Glucagon
Definition
Site of release: Pancreas. Site of action: Liver. Increases the blood glucose level when low.
Term
TSH
Definition
site of release: anterior pituitary. Site of action: thyroid gland. Stimulates the release of thyroid hormone
Term
ACTH
Definition
Site of release: anterior pituitary. Site of action: Adrenal Cortex. Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroid hormones
Term
Gonadtropins
Definition
Site of release: anterior pituitary. Site of action: Ovaries and testes. (FSH – follicle stimulating hormone and LH – luteinizing hormone) Regulate gamete production and hormonal activity of ovaries and testes
Term
parathyroid hormone
Definition
Site of release: parathyroid glands. Site of action: The kidneys. Controls the blood calcium levels
Term
adolsterone
Definition
Site of release: Adrenal cortex. Site of action: kidneys. Primary job is Regulates Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion by the kidneys.
Term
epinephrine
Definition
Site of release: Adrenal Medulla. Site of action: body cells involved in fight or flight response. Promotes fight or flight response.
Term
parathyroid hormone increases blood calcium levels.
Definition
- PTH released when calcium is low
- Stimulates oseoclasts to digest some bone and release calcium and phosphates in to the blood
- Increases calcium reabsoption in kidneys
- Stimulates kidneys to convert vitamin D to D3 which is needed for absorption of calcium for food
Term
Albumin
Definition
accounts for 60% of plasma protein. It acts as a carrier to shuttle certain molecules through the circulation, is an important blood buffer and is the major blood protein contributing to the plasma osmotic pressure.
Term
Erythrocyte
Definition
red blood cells that transport oxygen
Term
Leukocyte
Definition
white blood cells that act in various ways to protect the body and platelets
Term
Plasma
Definition
nonliving fluid component of blood
Term
Hematocrit
Definition
the percentage of erythrocytes in a blood sample. Usually about 45%
Term
Vascular spasm
Definition
smooth muscle contracts causing vasoconstriction
Term
Formed Elements
Definition
cellular portion of blood
Term
Platelets
Definition
cell fragments that help stop bleeding
Term
Hemoglobin
Definition
the protein that makes red blood cells red, bind easily and reversibly with oxygen.
Term
Erthyropoiesis
Definition
Erythrocyte production
Term
Erythropoietin
Definition
a glycoprotein hormone
Term
Anemia
Definition
a condition in which the blood has abnormally low oxygen-carrying capacity
Term
Polycythemia
Definition
is an abnormal excess of erythrocytes that increases blood viscosity causing it to sludge or flow sluggishly
Term
Hemostasis
Definition
stoppage of bleeding
Term
Coagulation
Definition
blood clotting
Term
Clotting factor
Definition
series of substances that are involved in making blood into a gel
Term
Anticoagulant
Definition
actors that inhibit clotting
Term
Thrombus
Definition
a clot that develops and persists in an unbroken blood vessel
Term
Embolus
Definition
If the thrombus breaks away from the vessel wall and floats freely in the bloodstream it becomes a embolus
Term
Hemophilia
Definition
refers to several different hereditary bleeding disorders that have similar signs and symptoms
Term
Transfusion reaction
Definition
when mismatched blood is infused
Term
Blood contains
Definition
Plasma, Buffy coat, Erythrocytes
Term
Blood Plasma contains
Definition
Water, Plasma proteins: albumin, Electrolytes/salts, Energy molecules
Term
major functions of blood
Definition
distribution
regulation
protection
Term
Distribution
Definition
1) Delivering oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive tract to all body cells
2) Transporting metabolic waste products from cells to elimination sites
3) Transporting hormones from the endocrine organs to their target organs
Term
regulation
Definition
1) Maintaining appropriate body temperature by absorbing and distributing heat throughout the body and to the skin surface to encourage heat loss
2) Maintaining normal pH in body tissues. Many blood proteins and other blood borne solutes act as buggers to prevent excessive or abrupt changes in blood pH that could jeopardize normal cell activities. Additionally blood acts as the reservoir for the body’s “alkaline reserve” of bicarbonate atoms
3) Maintaining adequate fluid volume in the circulatory system. Salts and blood proteins act to prevent excessive fluid loss from the bloodstream into the tissue spaces. As a result the fluid volume in the blood vessels remains ample to support efficient blood circulation to all parts of the body.
Term
protection
Definition
1) Preventing blood loss. When a blood vessel is damaged platelets and plasma proteins initiate clot formations, halting blood loss
2) Preventing infection. Drifting along in blood are antibodies complement proteins and white blood cells all of which help defend the body against foreign invaders such as bacteria and viruses.
Term
Erythrocytes
Definition
Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Term
Leukocytes
Definition
white blood cells involved in body protection that take part in inflammatory and immune responses.
Term
Neutrophils
Definition
Phagocytize bacteria
- Lymphocytes- mount immune response by direct cell attack or via antibodies
Term
Monocytes
Definition
Phagocytosis; develop into macrophages in the tissues.
Term
Eosinophils
Definition
kill parasitic worms
Term
Basophils
Definition
release histamine and other mediators of inflammation
Term
Platelets
Definition
Seal small tears in blood vessels (involved in clotting)
Term
Hemoglobin
Definition
the protein that makes red blood cells red, bind easily and reversibly with oxygen. transporting protein of erythrocytes
Term
erythropoietin mechanism for regulating erythropoiesis
Definition
1) Hypoxia – decreased RBC count, decreased amount of hemoglobin , decreased oxygen
2) Kidney releases erythropoietin
3) Erythropoietin stimulates red bone marrow
4) Enhanced erythropoiesis , increased RBC count
5) Oxygen carrying ability of blood increases
Term
Provide several different possible causes of anemia
Definition
- Insufficient number of red blood cells
- Low hemoglobin content – hemoglobin normal but erythrocytes contain less than normal hemoglobin
- Abnormal hemoglobin – goblin abnormal – erythrocytes fragile and rupture prematurely
Term
steps of hemostasis
Definition
1) Vascular spasm – smooth muscle contracts causing cell to shrink
2) Platelet plug formation – platelets stick together forming a temporary plug
3) Coagulation – reinforces platelet plug with fibrin threads
 Blood goes from liquid to get with clotting factors
Term
positive feedback loop of platelets
Definition
- As more platelets aggregate they release more chemicals which cause more platelets to aggregate
Term
- Pericardium
Definition
doubled walled sac which encloses the heart
Term
- Epicardium
Definition
visceral layer of the serous pericardium.
Term
Myocardium
Definition
The middle layer of the heart wall, it is the layer which contracts.
Term
Endocardium
Definition
located on the inner myocardial surface it lines the heart chambers and covers the fibrous skeleton of the valves.
Term
Atria
Definition
The two superior receiving chambers of the heart
Term
Ventricles
Definition
two inferior chamber of the heart which function as the major pumps of the heart
Term
Auricles
Definition
small wrinkled protruding appendages which increase the atrial volume
Term
Aorta
Definition
Largest artery in the body , arises from the left ventricle
Term
pulmonary circuit
Definition
all the blood vessels that carry blood to and from the lungs
Term
systemic circuit
Definition
all the blood vessels that carry from to and from the body tissues
Term
angina pectoris
Definition
thoracic pain caused by a fleeting deficiency in the blood delivery to the myocardium
Term
myocardial infarction (MI)
Definition
Known as a heart attack caused by prolonged coronary blockage
Term
pacemaker potential
Definition
Term
\sinoatrial (SA) node
Definition
located in the right atrial wall just inferior to the entrance of the superior vena cava. It sets the pace for the heart as a whole.
Term
atrioventricular (AV) node
Definition
Specialized mass of conducting cells located at the atrioventricular junction in the heart.
Term
bundle branches
Definition
Term
electrocardiogram (ECG)
Definition
a graphic record of heart activity
Term
systole
Definition
contraction forcing blood out of its chambers
Term
diastole
Definition
relaxation period
Term
venous return
Definition
the amount of blood returning to the heart and distending its ventricles
Term
stroke volume
Definition
Amount of blood pumped out of a ventricle during one contraction
Term
contractility
Definition
the contractile strength achieved at a given muscle length
Term
cardiac output
Definition
Amount of blood pumped out of a ventricle in one minute
Term
tachycardia
Definition
an abnormally fast heart rate that may result from elevated body temperature , stress,certain drugs or heart disease
Term
bradycardia
Definition
heart rate slower than 60 beats/min. it may result from low body temperature , certain drugs, or parasympathetic nervous activation
Term
congestive heart failure
Definition
when the pumping efficiency (CO) of the heart is so low that blood circulation is inadequate to meet tissue needs
Term
congenital heart defects
Definition
Term
 Locate the heart relative to the sternum, lungs, ribs, and vertebral column, and identify its base and apex
-
Definition
Heart is posterior to the sternum , medial to the lungs, anterior to the vertebral column and posterior to the ribs
Term
 Provide or identify the major function of:
- pericardial cavity , fibrous pericardium
Definition
fibrous pericardium – protects the heart, anchors it to surrounding structure and prevents overfilling of the heart with the blood
- pericardial cavity – filled with serous fluid which allows the heart to work in a relatively friction free environment.
Term
 Associate the following blood vessels with the part of the body they supply (arteries) or drain (veins):
Definition
- Superior vena cava – returns blood from body regions superior to the diaphragm... drains into the right atrium
- inferior vena cava – returns blood from body areas below the diaphragm… drains into the right atrium
- coronary sinus – collects blood draining from the myocardium and drains into the right atrium
- Coronary artery – supply blood to the cardiac muscles
- Coronary vein - take blood from the heart to the right atrium
- pulmonary artery – supplies the lungs with blood
- Pulmonary vein – transport blood from the lungs back to the heart, drain into the left atrium
- Pulmonary trunk – supplied from the right ventricle, and the blood then goes back to the lungs
Term
 Provide or identify the pathway of blood through the heart
Definition
- Lungs  pulmonary veins  left atrium left ventricles  aorta and branches  body  venae cava  right atrium  right ventricle  pulmonary arteries
Term
 Explain or identify why the left heart needs to work harder/be stronger than the right heart
-
Definition
Long pathway through the entire body and encounters about five times as much friction or resistance to blood flow. Left is a more powerful pump and can generate more pressure. The right just has a short low pressure circulation
Term
 For any heart valve (tricuspid AV, bicuspid/mitrial AV, aortic semilunar, pulmonary semilunar), identify or provide what two spaces it connects (and in what direction).
Definition
- Blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle through the tricuspid AV
- Blood flows from the left atrium to the left ventricle through the bicuspid/mitrial AV
- Blood flows from the right ventricle to the pulmonary artery through the pulmonary semilunar
- Blood flows from the left ventricle to the aorta through the aortic semilunar
Term
 Explain or identify the function of valves and explain why it’s bad when a valve is malfunctioning (“incompetent”)
Definition
- When a valve is broken it repumps blood because there is blood backflow . valves become stiff which causes the heart to work harder  the heart becomes weakened
- open and close in response to differences in blood pressure on their two sides.
Term
 Explain or identify why cardiac muscle cells are connected by gap junctions
Definition
- Gap junctions allow ions to pass from cell to cell transmitting current across the entire heart. When they are couple by gap junctions the myocardium behaves as a single coordinated unit.
Term
 Explain or identify how the heart beats by itself, without nervous input (how the electrical potentials are initiated by themselves), where these potentials are initiated, and how they spread to the rest of the heart
Definition
- Autorhythmic cells have pacemaker potentials which then spread to the rest of the heart.
- Potentials are initiated in the sinoatrial node
- They all spread because all the muscle cells are electrically connected due to gap junctions
Term
what makes the heart beat sound?
Definition
- First sound occurs as AV valves closes. Second sound occurs as SL valves snap shut at the beginning of ventricular relaxation. Pause is when the heart is relaxing
Term
 Predict AND explain how changes in venous return, contractility, sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system activity, heart rate, and stroke volume affect cardiac output
Definition
- Venous return - increase in venous return (the amount of blood returned to the heart) will increase cardiac output, because more blood in the heart stretches the cardiac muscle more, which causes it to contract more strongly
- Contractility - increase in contractility increase cardiac output
- Sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system activity – increase in sympathetic / decrease in parasympathetic increases cardiac output
- Heart rate - Increase in heart rate increases cardiac output
- Stroke volume – Increase in stroke volume increases cardiac output
Term
- Artery
Definition
blood vessels that conduct blood away from the heart and into the circulation
Term
Vein
Definition
blood vessels that return blood toward the heart from the circulation
Term
Arteriole
Definition
smallest arteries, place where blood flood into individual capillary beds gets “turned on or off
Term
Venule
Definition
formed when capillaries unite
Term
Capillary
Definition
smallest of the blood vessels and the sites of exchange between the blood and tissue cells
Term
blood pressure
Definition
force exerted by blood against a unit area of the blood vessel walls
Term
Resistance
Definition
Term
Viscosity
Definition
state of being sticky or thick
Term
blood flow -
Definition
Term
circulatory shock -
Definition
Term
Baroreceptor-
Definition
A sensory nerve ending in the wall of the carotid sinus or aortic arch sensitive to vessel stretching.
Term
Chemoreceptor
Definition
Receptor sensitive to various chemicals in solution
Term
Pulse
Definition
Rhythmic expansion and recoil of arteries resulting from heart contraction; can be felt from outside the body
Term
Hypotension
Definition
low blood pressure
Term
Hypertension
Definition
high blood pressure
Term
Autoregulation
Definition
The automatic local adjustment of blood flow to a particular body area in response to its current requirements
Term
 Put the different types of blood vessels “in order” of blood flow
Definition
- Heart  arteries  arterioles  capillaries  venules  veins  heart
Term
 Provide or identify the major function of: each of the three tunics
Definition
- Tunic intima – minimizes friction as blood moves through lumen
- Tunica media – regulate circulatory dynamics because small changes in vessel diameter greatly influence blood flow and pressure
- Tunica externa – protect and reinforce the vessel and anchor to surrounding structures
Term
 Explain or identify why capillaries have “holes” in their walls; and explain why these holes are absent in the brain and larger in some filtering tissues like the liver and kidney
Definition
- Capillaries have hole to allow for gas and nutrient exchange with the tissues
- Kidneys and liver have larger holes to allow large particles to filter out of blood into bile and urine
Term
 Identify how an increase or decrease in the difference in blood pressure between two points, or in resistance, will affect blood flow
Definition
- Increase in difference  the faster it flows
- Decrease in difference  the slower the flow
- No difference  No flow

(f= P1 – P2/r)
o Where F is (rate of blood) flow P1 is the pressure in one place and P2 is the pressure in the other and R is resistance
Term
 Explain what factors keep blood flowing in the right direction around the circuit
Definition
valves
blood pressure - flows high to low
Term
 Explain or identify the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure and why they’re called that
Definition
Systolic pressure
- Drawing together
- Pressure exerted by blood on the blood vessel walls during ventricular contractions Diastolic pressure
- Drawing apart
- Arterial blood pressure reached during or as a result of diastole; lowest level of any given cardiac cycle
Term
 Explain the processes by which low or high blood pressure is detected and corrected by the body
Definition
- When blood pressure is too high:
o Blood pressure high  baroreceptors stimulated  impulses from baroreceptors stimulate cardioinhibitory center and inhibit vasomotor center  decrease in sympathetic impulses to heart  rate of vasomotor impulses allows vasodilation causing decrease in resistance  decrease heart rate, contractility and cardiac output  decrease in cardiac output and resistance return blood pressure to homeostatic range
Term
 Explain or identify how the kidney can adjust blood pressure
Definition
o When blood volume or pressure rise the rate at which fluid filters from the bloodstream into the kidney tubules is speeded up and the kidneys can not keep up so more fluid leaves the body in the urine  blood pressure/volume to decrease. When they decrease the kidneys start to conserve water and return it to the blood stream
Term
 Explain how blood pressure measurement works
Definition
- Blood pressure – cuff is wrapped snugly around the arm just superior to the elbow and inflated until the cuff pressure exceeds systolic pressure. Blow flow is now stopped into the arm. Brachial pulse cannot be felt or heard. With a stethoscope sound in the brachial artery are listened for. Pressure when the first soft tapping is heard is systolic pressure. Sounds are continued to be heard. When artery is no longer constricted and blood can flow freely the sounds stop it is the diastolic pressure.
Term
 Predict AND explain how changes in venous return, blood volume, blood pH, O2, CO2, sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system activity, heart rate, stroke volume, blood viscosity, and blood vessel diameter (vasoconstriction or vasodilation) affect blood pressure
Definition
- Venous return – higher venous return higher blood pressure
- Blood volume – higher blood volume higher blood pressure
- Blood pH – higher pH lower blood pressure
- O2 - higher O2 lower blood pressure
- Co2 – higher CO2 higher blood pressure
- Sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system activity – increase in sympathetic activity increase in blood pressure
- Heart rate – higher heart rate higher blood pressure
- Stroke volume – higher stroke volume higher blood pressure
- Blood viscosity – higher blood viscosity higher blood pressure
- Blood vessel diameter – the smaller the diameter the lower the blood pressure
Term
 Explain or identify in what parts of the system blood flow is fast vs. slow, and why slow flow in the capillaries is a good idea
Definition
- Slow flow in the capillaries allows adequate time for exchanges between the blood and tissue cells
- Aorta  arteries  Venae cavae  veins  arterioles  venules  capillaries
- Blood flows fastest where the total cross sectional area is least
Term
 Given an artery or vein named in Fig 19.21b or Fig 19.26b, provide or identify the major organ or tissue(s) it supplies, or vice versa
Definition
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