Shared Flashcard Set

Details

Anatomy and Physiology 1 & 2 Combined Final exam
Anatomy and Physiology 1 & 2 Combined Final exam prep for CLEP exam
450
Nursing
Undergraduate 2
09/27/2012

Additional Nursing Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term



Tests included in CBC

Definition

hemoglobin

hematocrit

mean corpusclular hemoglobin

mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration

mean corpuscular volume

platelet count

WBC count

Term

tyrosine-kinase coupled receptors: Each molecule of hormone that arrives at the surface of the target cells can 

Definition

dimerize 2 receptor monomers, bringing their cytoplasmic domains close to one another.

Term
2 basic types of WBCs
Definition
granulocytes
agranular leukocytes
Term
2 types of tissue in the pitutary gland
Definition

posterior lobe (neurohypophesis or pars nervosa) develops as an extension of the floor of the diencephalon and is nueral tissue.

 

anterior lobe (adenohypophesis or pars distalis) begins as a pocket of ectoderm that forms in the roof of the primitive pharynx

Term
2nd major 2nd messenger system
Definition
  1. involves activation by a specific G protein of a membrane bound enzyme called phospholipase C
  2. This enzyme splits a small fraction of the plasma membrane's phospholipid (phosphoinositol) into 2 signaling substances
    1. inositol trisphosphate (ITP or IP3)
    2. diacylglycerol
  3. the signal pathway branches
  4. IP3 is a water soluble substance that enters the cytoplasm and causes the release of Ca++ from intracellular stores in the ER
  5. diacyglycerol is a hydrophobic molecule that diffuses freely within the plasma membrane and acts on a specific family of protein kinases (C kinases) distinct from that affected by cyclic nucleotides.
  6. the C kinases can then phosphorylate specific proteins within the cell, affecting their function.
Term
agranular leukocytes
Definition
WBC belonging to the specific immune system
Term
beta thalassemia
Definition
genetic disease in which the synthesis of hg may be impaired
Term
3 types of granulocytes
Definition
neutrophils
basophils
eosinophils
Term
3 types of rods in the cytoskeleton
Definition
microtubules
microfilaments
intermediate filaments

none of these are membrane covered
Term
AB individuals express
Definition
both glycoproteins antigens, so they do not make antibodies to either and thus can safely receive blood of any of the four ABO types (universal recipient)
Term
ABO antigens
Definition
for these antigens, one's body automatically possesses antibodies against those antigens that one's own blood cells do not possess
Term
ADENINE bonds to
Definition
Thymine
Term
coagulate
Definition
the ability of blood to clot
Term
AV block
Definition
disturbances in the duration and timing of the QRS complex (branch bundle block)
Term
Bainbridge reflex
Definition
a second reflex pathway originating from the vascular system that keeps venous pressure low and preventing pooling of blood on the venous side of the circulation
Term
Basal metabolic rate
Definition
the rate of energy use that is unrelated to specific body activities such as eating, exercise, or keeping warm
Term
erythropoietin
Definition
a hormone responsive to the oxygenation state of tissues that influences the formation of RBCs
Term

Blood Test Reference Range


BUN

Definition
7- 18 mg/dL
Term
extrinsic pathway
Definition
in hemostasis, the pathway initiated by chemical factors released by damaged cells, and involves activation of Factor VII leading to activation of Factor X and association of Factor X and Factor V to form a prothrombin activator complex
Term

Blood Test Reference Range


BUN creatinine ration

Definition
5-35
Term

Blood Test Reference Range


Bicarbonate

Definition
18-23 mEq/L (CO2 content)
Term

Blood Test Reference Range


Calcium

Definition

8.2-10.6 mg/dL

 

normally slightly higher in children

Term
formed elements
Definition
cells, although most of them, (the RBCs) lack a nucleus, that sink to the botom of the centrifuge tube, if a sample of blood is centrifuged.
Term

Blood Test Reference Range


Chloride

Definition
98-106 mEq/L
Term

Blood Test Reference Range


Creatine Kinase 

(CK or CPK)

Definition

male: 38-174 units/L

 

female: 96-140 units/L

Term

Blood Test Reference Range


Creatinine

Definition
0.6-1.2 mg/dL
Term
granulocytes
Definition
WBCs that are agents of the nonspecific immune system

nucleated cells distinguished by the presence of numerous granules in their cytoplasm
the granules are revealed by specific stains that identify the type of granulocyte.
Term

Blood Test Reference Range


Hematocrit

Definition

Male 45-62%

 

Female 37-48%

Term

Blood Test Reference Range


Hemoglobin

Definition

Male 13-18 gm/dL

 

Female 12-16 gm/dL

Term

Blood Test Reference Range


Magnesium

Definition
1.9-2.7 mEq/L
Term

Blood Test Reference Range


Platelet count

Definition
150,000-350,000/mL
Term
hemolytic anemias
Definition
anemias in which the rate of destruction of RBCs may be increased
Term

Blood Test Reference Range


Potassium

Definition
3.5-5.4 mEq/L
Term

Blood Test Reference Range


Prothrombin

(PTT)

Definition
25-41 sec
Term

Blood Test Reference Range


RBC

Definition
4.2- 6.9 million / μL / cu mm
Term

Blood Test Reference Range


Sodium

Definition
133- 146 mEq/L
Term
intrinsic pathway
Definition
the pathway initiated by trauma to the blood itself or by exposure to an abnormal surface, such as glass or collagen, leads to a cascade of factors that terminates in the formation of the prothrombin activator complex
Term

Blood Test Reference Range


WBC

Definition

4.3 - 10.8 X 103 / mm3

 

or

 

4,300 - 10,800 cells/ μL / cu mm

Term

Blood Test Reference Range


total protein

Definition
6.0-8.4 gm/dL
Term
jaundice
Definition
an excess of bilirubin, giving the skin and sclera of the eys a yellow tinge
Term

Blood Test Reference Range

 

Acidity (pH)

Definition
7.35-7.45
Term
Blood type O individuals
Definition
express a form of the glycoprotein that lacks enough terminal sugars to serve as an antigen and possess both antiA and antiB antibodies
Term

Ca++ calmodulin activates protein kinases in a way similar to _____A______. 

In skeletal and cardiac muscle, the Ca++ binding protein ______b_____ is attached to the thin filament and controls access of _____c_____ to active binding sites; the molecular structure of the Ca++ binding part of troponin closely resemles ____d_____.

Definition

A.   cAMP and ITP

 

B.    Troponin

 

C.     myosin heads

 

D.     calmodulin

Term
Ca++ must bind to
Definition
cytoplasmic receptor
Term
Ca++ induced Ca++ release
Definition
A process in which free Ca++ in the cytoplasm increases Ca++ release by the SR, magnifying the effect of the additional Ca++.
Term
Cardiac reserve
Definition
The difference between the current cardiac output and the maximum cardiac output the heart is capable of
Term
primary immune response
Definition
a reaction to a transfusion of blood that occurs between genetically different individuals
Term
Centrosome
Definition

microtubules are anchored at one end in a region near the nucleus called the centrosome.

Centrosome acts as a microtubule organizing center

 

Term
Define the autonomic modulation of heart function
Definition
  • The heart can maintain a regular rhythm (automaticity) and also modulate its force to meet demand without any neural input 
  • Autonomic inputs can modulate both the heart rate (a chronotropic effect) and the contractility or force-generating potential of the heart (an inotropic effect). 
  • The classical neurotransmitter released by the parasympathetic postganglionic neurons is acetylcholine (ACh) and the heart, like most other visceral effectors, has muscarinic receptors for ACh. 
  • The sympathetic branch can deliver both norepinephrine from its postganglionic fibers and epinephrine from the adrenal medulla via the bloodstream. 
  • The adrenergic receptors of cardiac muscle are primarily of the beta-1 type, which can respond to both norepinephrine and epinephrine.
Term
Describe a transfusion reaction
Definition
each antibody molecule possesses 2 or more binding sites, antibody binding can couple cells together, causing clumping, or agglutination, of the transfused red cells.
Term
Describe the functions of the adrenal glands.
Definition
  • Each adrenal consists of two very dissimilar glands.
  • The inner part is the adrenal medulla, a branch of the sympathetic nervous system that secretes catecholamines. 
  • The outer part is the adrenal cortex, a gland that secretes steroid hormones. 
Term
Describe the functions of the gonads.
Definition
The gonadshave two basic functions: their role in gametogenesis (formation of
reproductive cells) and their endocrine role as the major sources of the sex hormones.
The gonadal female sex hormones are estrogens and progestins; the gonadal male
hormones are testosterone and dihydrotestosterone. These hormones are responsible for
the following:

 Establishment, before birth, of some sex-related differences in the brains of males
and females
 Differentiation of male internal and external genitalia (caused by prenatal secretion
of testosterone)
 Growth and differentiation of gender-specific secondary sexual characteristics at
puberty and their maintenance after puberty
 Together with other hormones, estrogens and progestin are necessary for
establishment and maintenance of pregnancy and preparation for lactation
Term
tissue thromboplastins
Definition
chemical factors released by damaged cells that initiate the extrinsic pathway
Term
Describe the functions of the parathyroids.
Definition
Parathormone (PTH) is the hormone secreted by the parathyroid. The rate of secretion of PTH is stimulated by decreases in levels of Ca++ in the plasma, and all of the effects of PTH tend to protect against decreases in plasma Ca++.
PTH has direct or indirect effects on three organs: bone, kidney, and intestine. The net effects of PTH on bone and intestine are to increase plasma Ca++ and decrease plasma phosphate. This ensures that the response to a hypocalcemic challenge does not also lead to an excess of plasma phosphate. The stimulation of vitamin D activation by PTH ensures that dietary Ca++ will be absorbed efficiently when there is a continuing
challenge to plasma Ca++. Calcitonin, secreted by the thyroid, has a positive effect on bone growth; secretion of calcitonin is inhibited if plasma Ca++ levels fall.
Term
During diastole
Definition
  • blood flows through the atria and into the ventricles under the relatively low pressure of blood in veins (several mm Hg);
  •  this is referred to as the period of passive filling. 
  • Contraction of the atrium adds a small amount of blood to the ventricle (perhaps 10 percent or so under resting conditions); 
  • at this point, the ventricle contains its end-diastolic volume (EDV) of blood.
Term
ESR
Definition

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate

 

the rate at which the RBCs fall to the bottom of a tube of blood simply through the effect of gravity.

Term
viscosity
Definition
a measure of the fluid's resistance to flow
Term
whole blood viscosity range
Definition
3.5-5.5
Term
ESR increases with
Definition
inflammatory disease such as chronic infection, arthritis, rheumatic fever
Term
Effects of T3 and T4
Definition
  • Thyroid hormones stimulate the metabolism of almost all tissues including both catabolic and anabolic pathways.
  • They increase the rate of pumping of Na+ across plasma membranes and the ease with which Na+ leaks into cells.
  • this creates a cycle which increases turnover of ATP in cells throughout the body
  • Thyroid secretion has a major effect on the basal metabolic rate
Term
Einthoven's triangle
Definition
classically the EKG was recorded from the corners of the triangle formed by the right arm, left arm, and left leg
Term
effect of anemia on blood viscosity
Definition
anemia decreases viscosity d/t reduced number of formed cells in the blood.
Term
Explain the androgonization occuring in female patients with 21 hydroxylase deficiency
Definition
  • chronically low levels of cortisol cause elevated levels of ACTH in 21-hydroxylase deficiency 
  • which stimulates the adrenal cortex to the rate of conversion of cholesterol into the early intermediates of all three pathways
  • the intermediates in the pathways leading to cortisol and aldosterone simply pile up at the blocked steps in their pathways and then spill into the pathway of androgen synthesis.
  • excess androgen can masculinize the female fetuses if the mother has the defect causing a condition known as androgenital syndrome
Term
Explain the process by which cell-surface receptors work.
Definition
  1. The hormone binds to receptor’s binding site on the extracellular side of the plasma membrane. 
  2. The complex of receptor and hormone activates a G protein associated with the cytoplasmic side of the membrane. 
  3. The G protein activates adenyl cyclase, also on the cytoplasmic face of the membrane. 
  4. Adenyl cyclase converts a small fraction of the cell’s supply of ATP into cAMP. 
  5. The cAMP diffuses throughout the cell, activating a specific family of cytoplasmic protein kinases. 
  6. The activated protein kinases attach phosphate groups to intracellular enzymes, activating (or inhibiting) them—an example of allosteric regulation. 
    • Changes in gene expression are the result of phosphorylation of a protein called CREB (cyclic AMP response element binding protein). 
    • When phosphorylated, this protein can serve as an inducer for the transcription of specific genes. 
  7. The second message is terminated as cAMP is converted to an inactive form (noncyclic AMP) by an enzyme called cAMP phosphodiesterase.
Term
Failure of the thyroid to produce T4 and T3 may lead to
Definition

devleopment of an enlarged gland (goiter)

 

Term
Frank-Starling law
Definition
Within a reasonable range, the heart automatically adjusts its stroke volume so that increases in end-diastolic volume are matched by increases in stroke volume
Term
eosinophils
Definition
stain with the dye eosin
involved in antiparasitic responses and also moderate the responses of basophils, so they may have a corrective role in allergic attacks
Term
GUANINE binds to
Definition
cytosine
Term
Gogli apparatus function
Definition
modify, concentrate and package proteins and lipids made at the rough ER
Term
HGH acts by 
Definition

inducing the liver to synthesize specific growth factors called somatomedins (aka insulin-like growth factors IGFs)

 

2 IGFs are identified

IGF-I

IGF-II

Term
HGH secretion in young people
Definition

rises significantly after every meal

largest part of daily secretion occurs as a pulse or series of pulses after the person falls asleep at night.

Term
How does chronic hypoxia affect RBC production
Definition
chronic hypoxia stimulates an increase in production, potentially leading to polycythemia and an abnormally elevated hematocrit.

this occurs normally in the process of adaptation to high altitude, with a corresponding increase in the ability of the blood to carry oxygen
Term
IGF I
Definition
stimulates growth of epiphyseal plates of long bones, thus bone growth that leads to growth in stature
Term

In a tyrosine-kinase coupled receptor,

 the cytoplasmic domains first ___A_____ one another, greatly increasing each other's _______B________.

 

They can then ______C_____ specific signal proteins that activate or inhibit ______D_____ and also exert specific genomic effects.

Definition

A.     phosphorylate

 

B.     tyrosine-kinase

 

 

C.     phosphorylate

 

D.     cytoplasmic enzymes

Term
In all types of muscle, excitation-contraction coupling involves 
Definition

either or both:

 

Ca++ entry across the plasma membrane

 

or

 

Ca++ release from storage sites within the cell.

Term
In primary active transport hydrolysis of ATP results in the
Definition
phosphorylation of the transport protein
Term
the normal rate of formation of RBC
Definition
230 billion per day
Term
In primary active transport, the energy to do work comes directly from
Definition
hydrolysis of ATP
Term
In secondary active transport, transport is driven indirectly by energy stored in
Definition
ionic gradients created by operation of primary active transport pumps.
Term
components of plasma
Definition
92% water, 7% protein, 1% salts, primarily NaCl
Various transported materials:
the gases O2 and CO2
nutrients
wastes
hormones
Term
In the translation step of protein synthesis, the language of nucleic acids (base sequence) is translated into the language of proteins (amino acid sequence). The process of translation occurs in the 
Definition
cytoplasm and involves all 3 varieties of RNA
Term
Laron Dwarfism
Definition
an inherited condition in which levels of circulating HGH are actually elevated above normal, but the body is unresponsive to the hormone that fails to synthesize IGF-I.
Term
Lead I
Definition
Gives information about currents flowing in the left-right axis of the heart
Term
Lead II
Definition
Gives information about currents flowing along the dorsal-ventral axis of the heart
Term
Lead III
Definition
Gives information about currents flowing along the dorsal-ventral axis of the heart
Term
List six hormones secreted by the adenohypophysis
Definition
  1. Growth hormone (HGH; aka somatotropin)
  2. Prolactin (PRL)
  3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH; aka corticotropin) 
  4. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH; aka thyrotropin) 
  5. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH; a gonadotropin)
  6. Luteinizing hormone (LH; a gonadotropin)
Term
List the eletrical events of the heart cycle
Definition
  1. the SA nodal fibers reach threshold and generate an action potential.
  2. Teh excitation spreads through atrial contracting fibers and a conducting system that connects the 2 atria, and atrial systole begins
  3. in the meantime, the wave of excitation passing through atrial fibers approaches the AV node. 
  4. excitation enters the AV node and then spreads into  the bundle of His. The bundle branches give rise to Purkinge fibers that rapidly spread the wave of excitation into the ventricular mass initiating ventricular systole. The wave of excitaiton has been followed by a wave of repolarization in the atria, allowing them to relax.
  5. Ventricular repolarization occurs. The ventricles relax and the diastolic phase of a new cycle begins.
Term
List the four major classes of hormones.
Definition
  1. Tyrosine derivatives
  2. Peptides and proteins 
  3. Steroids 
  4. Eicosanoids
Term
List the steps between renin secretion and aldosterone secretion
Definition
  1. renin is a protease that acts on a plasma protein called angiotensinogen to split off angiotensin I
  2. angiotensin I is then converted to angiotensin II by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)
  3. angiotensin II acts on the adrenal cortex to increase aldosterone secretion
Term
Many target tissues can convert T$ to
Definition

T3.

This gives these tissues some control over the effectiveness of the hormone.

Term
Microtubules
Definition
hollow tubes made of spherical protein subunits called tubulins
Term
NSAIDs block
Definition
key enzyme cyclooxygenase in the route of prostaglandin synthesis
Term
Name the three main protein groups of plasma proteins
Definition

albumins

globulins

fibrinogen

Term
Neurosecretory cells are
Definition
neurons whose synapses release substances that pass into the blood and act as hormones
Term
Nodal fibers of the SA and AV nodes are spontaneously active, giving the heart a property called
Definition
automaticity
Term
Nonprotein solutes - total solute content of ECF
Definition
the total solute content of ECF is 300 mOsmoles/L
Term
Ordinarily in clinical practice, only ___,__,__ and __ are measured
Definition
Na+, K=, Cl- and HCO3-
Term
P wave
Definition
the first feature of an EKG that appear when the atria depolarize
Term
PQ interval
Definition
a baseline feature of an EKG that indicates when the whole mass of the atria is depolarized and there is no voltage difference between different parts of the atria; thus no current flows around the tissue (although a current does flow across the plasma membranes of the cells).
Term
Prostaglandins are the major class of
Definition
eicosanoids
Term
Purkinje fibers
Definition
the conducting fibers of the ventricular mass
Term
QRS complex
Definition
the second feature of an EKG that shows the period of atrial repolarization (not seen distinctly, but part of the QRS complex) and the period of ventricular depolarization
Term
RBC lifetime
Definition
about 90 days
Term
RBC production is sensitive to
Definition
oxygenation state of body tissues.
Term
RBC size
Definition
about 7.5 microns
Term
Release of growth hormone (somatotropin) 
Definition
  • is stimulated by growth hormone-releasing factor and inhibited by a release-inhibiting factor called somatostatin
Term
Rh system
Definition

A second form of blood type. 

  • Roughly one-sixth of the U.S. population lacks the Rh antigen (is Rh negative), and therefore is able to mount a primary immune response against it. 
  • By itself, this fact is not different from the situation with many other blood group antigens. 
  • However, the antiRh antibody, like many other antibodies present in the mother’s blood, can cross the placental barrier between mother and fetus and attack fetal red cells.
Term
describe preliminary typing
Definition

some of the potential recipient's plasma is mixed with a sample of the transfusion blood.

 

If agglutination occurs, the blood types are incompatible

Term
Rhogam
Definition
a preparation of antiRh antibodies that prevents erythroblastosis
Term
ST segment
Definition
a feature of an EKG that occurs when the ventricle is completely depolarized
Term
Secondary active transport systems are all
Definition
couple systems
Term
erythroblastosis fetalis
Definition
  • can occur in a second pregancy of Rh positive fetus in a Rh negative mother.
  • during first pregancy of Rh + fetus, mother is exposed to fetal blood and develps antibodies
  • During 2nd pregancy, the mother's blood contains antibodies which attack the fetal red blood cells.
  • if the fetus survives, it can be born with e. fetalis, in hwich destruction of mature red cells causes a form of hemolytic anemia marked by appearance of immature, nucleated red cells in the newborn's blood.
  • erythroblastosis fetalis can be prevented by administration of Rhogam, with is a preparation of antiRh antibodies to Rh negative mothers at the time of each delivery.
  • the Rhogam binds with an Rh antigen that has entered the mother's bloodstream, preventing it from triggering a primary immune resonse.

 

Term
Steps on the operation of the sodium-potassium pump, an antiport pump (Na+-K+ATPase)
Definition
  1. Binding of cytoplasmic Na+ to the pump protein stimulates phosphorylation by ATP.
  2. Phosphorylation causes the protein to change its shape.
  3. The shape change expels Na+ to the outside, and extracellular K+binds.
  4. K+ binding triggers release of the phosphate group.
  5. Loss of phosphate restores the original conformation of the pump protein.
  6. K+ is released and Na+ sites are ready to bind Na+ again; the cycle repeats.
Term
T wave
Definition
the third feature of an EKG that shows the period of ventricular repolarization
Term
TPR, total peripheral resistance is affected by
Definition
dilation or constriction of blood vessels (specifically the arterioles) throughout the body
Term
Table of Major Plasma Solutes
Definition
[image]
Term
Tests for electrolytes include
Definition

Calcium

chloride

magnesium

potassium

sodium

Term
arrhythmias
Definition
disturbances in the heart's rhythm
Term
The antibodies of transfused type O blood will attack 
Definition
the red cells of recipients that are A, B, or AB, but because the transfused plasma is so greatly diluted, this reaction is usally not of consequence for the recipient.
Term

The control of ______ release by the hypothalamus does not fit the pattern of other adenohypophyseal hormone, in which small peptide act as releasing factors of release-inhibiting factors.

 

  1. CRF
  2. GnRF
  3. HGH
  4. PRL
Definition
4. PRL
Term
The major nutrient component of blood plasma is 
Definition
lipid and phospholipid
Term
carotid sinus
Definition
Where cardiovascular reflexes that regulate arterial blood pressure originate
Term
The plateau period during which membrane potentials of myocardial cells remain depolarized is the result of 2 major factors:
Definition

the opening of L Ca++ channels, which remain open for most of the plateau period

 

a delay in the opening of voltage-sensitive K+ channels.

Term
The secondary major nutrient carried in blood
Definition
the monosaccharide glucose normally present at 65-100 mg/dl, rising as high as 120-140 mg/dl during absorption of a meal
Term
The symptoms of the 21-hydroxylase defect that relate to glucocorticoid and androgen can be alleviated by
Definition
cortisol replacement, which returns ACTH levels to normal range
Term
WBCs
Definition
a component of blood that includes granulocytes and agranular leukocytes
Term
What 2 basic types of hormones are derived from tyrosine?
Definition
Thyroid hormones T3 and T4
and
The catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine
Term
What is an important role for plasma proteins?
Definition
balancing the hydrostatic pressure of blood in the process of capillary filtration, the mechanism of generation of interstitial fluid from plasma
Term
What is the result of a type A individual donates to a type B individual or vice-versa?
Definition
agglutination due to antibodies present in the blood against those antigens that one's own blood cells do not possess
Term
When the initiator tRNA binds to the mRNA, it occupies the
Definition
P site on the robosome and the A and E sites are vacant. Now the ribosome slides the mRNA strand along, bringing the next codon into position to be read by an aminoacyl-tRNA coming into the A site.
Term
Which node has a higher intrinsic frequency of action potentials?
Definition

the SA node

about 100 action potentials/minute in the lack of any external input.

 

Term
inferior venae cavae
Definition
1 of 3 veins from which the right atrium receives blood
Term

Which one of the following is not a hormone secreted by adenohypophesis?

 

  1. carotidtropin
  2. growth hormone
  3. prolactin
  4. thyrotropin
Definition
1. carotidtropin
Term
inotropic effect
Definition
the contractility or force-generating potential of the heart modulated by autonomic inputs
Term
Why is it unwise to attempt to evaluate endocrine status of a pt with a single measurement of blood hormone levels?
Definition
Pituitary hormone secretion is largely episodic, with differing levels throughout the day.
Term
___ and ___ account for the greatest part of the total cation
Definition
Na+ and K+
Term
a decrease in arterial blood pressure triggers a
Definition
reflexive increase in heart rate/force through a simultaneous decrease in parasympathetic tone, if any is present, and an increase in sympathetic outflow to the heart and to the resistance vessels of the vascular  system.
Term
a hormonal message is only ablt to act on
Definition
those tissues that possess molecular receptors that recognize the hormone and bind to it.
Term
a primary immune response resulting from transfusion of blood from genetically different individuals is dangerous to the recipient only if
Definition

the transfusion is repeated

in a secondary exposure, the recipient already possesses some antibodies and produces more antibodies very rapidly. This immune response will destroy the transfused cells and in the process may cause damage to the recipients tissues.

this is called a transfusion reaction, a form of tissue graft rejection.

Term
left coronary artery
Definition
serves ventricles, the left atrium, and the interventricular septum
Term
agglutination
Definition
Clumping of the transfused red cells caused by antibody binding
Term
muscarinic
Definition
receptors in the heart for acetylcholine (ACh)
Term
anemia
Definition
a condition in which the numbers of circulating RBCs are reduced, or their content of Hg is inadequate, reducing the O carrying capacity of blood
Term
anion gap
Definition
difference of about 18 mEq/L of anion that is not accounted for by the sum of Cl- and HCO3-
Term
antibodies
Definition
The chemical agents of the specific immune system
Term
antigens
Definition
they can be recognized and bound by antibodies
Term
antiport system
Definition
coupled system in which transported substances move across the membrane in opposite directions
Term
aorta
Definition
The trunk of a systemic arterial tree with many branches
Term
aortic baroreceptors
Definition
Cardiovascular reflexes that regulate arterial pressure
Term
aortic valve
Definition
allows blood to enter the aorta
Term
right atrioventricular valve
Definition
valve through which the right atrium opens into the right ventricle
Term
at the beginning and end of ventricular systole, there are two isovolumetric periods when both the AV valves and the pulmonary and aortiv valves are 
Definition
closed. These are the periods when ventricular pressure changes are the most dramatic
Term

atrioventricular node

AV node

Definition
Nodal fibers near the junction of atrial and ventricular septa that are spontaneously active, giving the heart a property called automaticity
Term
right coronary artery
Definition
serves the right atrium, right ventricle, and variable portions of the left atrium and left ventricle
Term
automaticity
Definition
the maintenence of a regular heart rhythm
Term
right pulmonary artery
Definition
carries blood to the lungs
Term
baroreceptor reflex
Definition
a decrease in arterial blood pressure triggers a reflexive increase in heart rate/force through a simultaneous decrease in parasympathetic tone, if any is present, and an increase in sympathetic outflow to the heart and to the resistance vessels of the vascular system
Term
basophils
Definition
stain with basic dyes
release histamine
a chemical mediator of inflammation
are involved in allergic responses
Term
bicuspid
Definition
the valve thorugh which the blood enters the left ventricle
Term
bilirubin
Definition
a greenish yellow pigment that results from the conversion of hg released in the course of destruction of RBCs
Term
bundle of His
Definition
excitation enters the AV node and then spreads into this bundle of fibers, which divides into one branch that passes down the interventricular spetum and into the right ventricle, and (usually) two branches that enter the left ventricle
Term
by the 3rd month of embryonic development, hemocytoblasts have migrated into the
Definition
liver and spleen and most blood cell production goes on at those sites until about the 7th month, when hematopoiesis is taken over by the bone marrow.
Term
capillary filtration
Definition
mechanism of generation if interstitial fluid from plasma
Term
superior venae cavae
Definition
one of three veins from which the right atrium receives blood
Term
systole
Definition
atrial or ventricular contraction
Term
cardiac cycle 
Definition
[image]
Term
cardiac fiber connection via gap junctions allows
Definition
excitation to spread throughout the heart by moving from one fiber to another
Term

cardiac output

CO

Definition
The volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute
Term
tricuspid
Definition
valve through which the right atrium opens into the right ventricle
Term
cardiac output is determined by
Definition
the interaction of heart performance and vascular performance, not by the heart alone
Term
Name the four valves of the heart
Definition
  • AV valves (atrioventricular valves)
    • tricuspid
    • mitral
  • pulmonary semilunar valve
  • aortic semilunar valve

 

Term
chordae tendinea
Definition
strands of connective tissue attached to papillary muscles in the ventricle
Term
With the onset of ventricular systole,
Definition
  • the pressure of the ventricular blood immediately exceeds the venous pressure, closing the AV valves. 
  • At this point the ventricle is contracting as a closed container, so this phase of the cycle is called the period of isovolumetric contraction. 
  • When the ventricle raises its pressure to a value that exceeds the arterial pressure, the bicuspid valve opens and a stroke volume of blood is ejected into the artery, rapidly raising the arterial pressure from the diastolic pressure, the minimum value reached just before ejection, to the systolic pressure, the value achieved at the peak of ejection. 
  • After ejection, the bicuspid valve closes and the ventricle undergoes isovolumetric relaxation. 
  • At this point, the ventricle contains the end-systolic volume of blood. This phase ends when ventricular pressure falls to the venous value, allowing the AV valves to open and passive filling to begin again.
Term
chronically low cortisol levels in 21-hydroxylase deficiency cause
Definition
elevated levels of ACTH
Term
clot
Definition
a more permanant plut, or thrombus, produced during hte process of hemostasis
Term
clot retraction
Definition
the result of gradual contraction of the fibrin threads that make up the clot
Term
cardiac output =
Definition
heart rate X stroke volume
Term
clotting factors
Definition
a series of plasma proteins involved in hemostasis that form fibrin from the plasma protein fibrinogen at the site of an injury
Term
conducting fibers
Definition
Fibers that form a conducting pathway that can rapidly transmit excitation between the atria and throughout the ventricular mass
Term
regulation of arterial blood pressure is accomplished by
Definition
cardiovascular reflexes that originate in carotid sinus and aortic baroreceptors located, respectively in the wall of the  carotid sinus at the point where the common carotid artery branches into the internal and external carotids and throughout the thoracic aorta and its branches within the thorax.
Term
contractile fibers
Definition
specialized fibers for contraction that make up the great mass of the heart
Term
name the three veins from which the right atrium receives blood
Definition

superior venae cavae

inferior venae cavae

coronary sinus

Term
coronary sinus
Definition
collects blood from the heart's own cardiac veins
Term
the atriventricular valves are supported by
Definition
chordae tendinea
Term
coupled systems
Definition
move more than one substances at a time
Term
define the properties of the cardiac muscle
Definition
  • Cardiac fibers are connected by gap junctions, allowing excitation to spread throughout the heart by moving from one fiber to another.
  • Some cardiac fibers are specialized for roles other than contraction.
    • nodal fibers
      •  serve as pacemakers, generating regular action potentials
      • Nodal fibers of the sinoatrial (SA) node in the right atrium near the opening of the superior vena cava, and the atrioventricular (AV) node, near the junction of atrial and ventricular septa, are spontaneously active, giving the heart a property called automaticity.
    • conducting fibers, 
      • which form a conducting pathway that can rapidly transmit excitation between the atria and throughout the ventricular mass. 
      • The conducting fibers of the ventricular mass are called Purkinje fibers. 

During each heartbeat, all of the cardiac fibers are activated. Each heartbeat is the result of a single action potential in each cardiac fiber.

Term
name the 2 arteries which form a second belt passing along the interventricular sulcus, forming an anastomosis on the posterior wall of the ventricles
Definition

anterior interventricular artery

posterior interventricular artery

Term
describe chronic mountain sickness
Definition
increased blood viscosity d/t increased RBC production and increased hematocrit.
Increased viscoty of blood places excessive load on the heart and circulation through some organs may become inadequate.

condition can be cured only by a return to lower altitude.
Term
cardiac fibers are connected by
Definition
gap junctions
Term
determining factors of blood temperature
Definition
location of the blood in the body - cooler in extremeties, warmer in core
Term
diastole
Definition
the period in which the heart is relaxed, during which the atria and ventricles of the heart fill with venous blood
Term
conducting fibers form a
Definition
conducting pathway that can rapidly transmit excitation between the atria and throughout the ventricular mass.
Term
the conducting fibers of the ventricular mass are called
Definition
Purkinje fibers
Term
diastolic pressure
Definition
the minimum value reached just before blood ejection from the ventricle into the artery
Term
difference between protein and peptide
Definition
protein: generally refers to molecules consisting of dozens to hundreds of amino acids..

peptide: may range from as few as 3 amino acids to 30
Term
during each heartbeat, all of the cardiac fibers are 
Definition
activated
Term
during diastole, blood flows
Definition
through the atria and into the ventricles under the relatively low pressure of blood in veins. this is referred to as the period of passive filling.
Term
during the process of coagulation, platelets release _____ as they stick to the collagen fibers of the blood vessel wall exposed by the cut
Definition

ADP

adenosine diphosphate

Term
each heartbeat is the result of 
Definition
a single action potential in each cardiac fiber
Term

electrocardiogram

EKG

Definition
the record at the body surface of electrical currents that flow between excited and unexcited regions of the heart during a heartbeat
Term
end systolic volume
Definition
The ovlume of blood in the ventricle during the point in which the ventricle undergoes isovolumetric relaxation
Term
the membrane potential of a nodal fiber is not stable during the period between heartbeats, but instead it drifts steadily in the direction of depolarization
Definition
[image]
Term
end-diastolic volume
Definition
the point at which the ventricle contains a small amount of blood due to the contraction of the atrium (perhaps 10% or so under resting conditions)
Term
what accounts for the basic automatic rhythm of the heart
Definition
the continually resetting cycle of pacemakers and the spreading excitation from pacemakers to the rest of the heart.
Term
endocardium
Definition
a sheet of endothelium that is the innermost layer of the pericardium
Term
in myocardial cells, the membrane potential remains
Definition
depolarized for a lengthy plateau period that may last more than 0.1 sec.
Term
endomembrane system
Definition
system of organelles that work together to produce, store and export t biological molecules and degrade potentially harmful substances

contains: golgi apparatus, ER, secretory vesicles and lysosome and the nuclear membrane
Term
Ca++ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum of cardiac fibers can be activated
Definition
membrane depolarization through the same mechanism as in skeletal muscle
Term
epicardium
Definition

the outermost layer of the heart wall

 

Term
epinephrine is the major hormone secreted by the
Definition
adrenal medulla
Term
erythroblastosis fetalis
Definition
a condition in which the destruction of mature RBCs causes a form of hemolytic anemia marked by the appearance of immature, nucleated RBCs in the newborn's blood
Term
result of ventricular contraction (ventricular systole)
Definition
ventricularcloses the av valves, precenting backflow into the atria, and thenraises the ventricular pressure to a value higher than the arterial pressure, opening the pulmonary and aortic valves and allowing blood to enter the pulmonary trunk and aorta.
Term
erythrocyte
Definition

RBC

red blood cell

Term
normal sinus rhythm
Definition
[image]
Term
extrinsic pathway
Definition
  • intiated by chemical factors (tissue thromboplastins) released by damaged cells
  • involves activation of Factor VII leading to activation of Factor X and association of Factor X and Factor V to form a prothrombin activator complex.

 

Term
what is recorded in a EKG
Definition
the electrical currents that flow between excited and unexcited regions of the heart during a heartbeat also spread throughout the volume of the body and can be recorded as voltage differences at  the body surface.
Term
fibrinogen
Definition
a plasma protein specifically involved in forming blood clots
Term
Name they 3 normal EKG features in order of appearance
Definition

P wave

QRS complex

T wave

Term
fibrinolysis
Definition
clot breakdown in the healing process
Term
fibrous pericardium
Definition
the outer layer of the pericardium
Term
first heart sound
Definition
results from the closing of the AV valves
Term
The events of the EKG precede the corresponding contractile events. Why?
Definition
to contract, the muscle must first depolarize
Term
for ionic solutes, the chemical law of macroscopic electroneutrality demands
Definition
the total concentration of cation equal the total concentration of anion
Term
The heart fills under _____ pressure and ejects against ____ pressure.
Definition

low

high

Term
force delivery in cardiac muscle is modulated by 
Definition
altering the force production of individual fibers.
Term
During the transitions between low and high pressure, the ventricle is a 
Definition
closed chamber
Term
formation of granulocytes and the rate of release of stored granulocytes from bone marrow are increased in response to
Definition
infection
Term
formation of red cells is influenced by levels of
Definition
erythropoietin
Term
systolic murmer occurs when
Definition
aortic stenosis creates a nozzle. The jet of blood through the nozzle creates a loud high-pitched systolic murmer
Term
gamma globulins
Definition
a fraction of the globulins that consists sepcifically of antibodies, a major type of recognition protein of the immune system
Term
mitral regurgitation occurs
Definition
if the mitral valves fail to close tightly, blood is forced backward from ventricle to atrium during systole, creating a more muted swishing or blowing systolic murmer.
Term
globulins
Definition
plasma proteins
Term
diastolic murmer occurs when
Definition
damage to the aortic valves prevents them from closing tightly, blood leaks back from aorta to left vetricle during diastole (aortic regurgitation)
Term
half of the ___ and ___ are bound to phosphate
Definition
Ca++ and Mg++
Term
contraction of the atrium adds about ___% of blood to the ventricle. 
Definition
10
Term
heart cycle
Definition
[image]
Term
hematocrit
Definition
the fraction of blood volume occupied by RBCs
Term
hematopoiesis
Definition
formation of blood cells
Term
hematopoiesis in adults is mainly confined to the
Definition
sternum
Term
hemocytoblast
Definition
the stem cell for all blood cell types
Term
Explain the mechanism of action of steroid hormones.
Definition
  • Steroid hormones, being only poorly water soluble, typically travel in the blood as complexes with specific carrier proteins. 
  • When the complex approaches the plasma membrane of a cell, the steroid may detach and dissolve in the lipid membrane. 
  • The steroid enters the cell and is carried to the nucleus. 
  • If the cell is a target cell, the steroid binds with a protein nuclear receptor. 
Term
hemoglobin
Definition
the pigment that gives blood its red color
Term
Describe the parts of the pituitary gland and their functions.
Definition

The posterior lobe (the neurohypophysis or pars nervosa), develops as an extension of the floor of the diencephalon, thus is neural tissue 

  • The terminals that emanate from neurons in the paraventricular nucleus release the octapeptide hormone oxytocin. 
  • The terminals that emanate from the supraoptic nucleus release a similar octapeptide hormone, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin. 

anterior lobe (adenohypophysis or pars distalis) begins as a pocket of ectoderm that forms in the roof of the primitive pharynx and ultimately becomes an island of cells cut off from the pharynx by the development of the sphenoid bone.

  • secretions of the adenohypophesis
    • Growth Hormone HGH
    • Prolactin PRL
    • adenocorticotropic hormone ACTH
    • Thyroid-stimulating hormone TSH AKA thyrotropin
    • Follicle-stimulating hormone FSH
    • Luteinizing hormone LH 
Term
hemorrhage
Definition
an acute loss of blood from the circulatory system
Term
3 classificaitons of adenohypophyseal hormones according to their structures.
Definition
  1. One group includes growth hormone and prolactin. These hormones possess substantial sequence homology—long stretches of their amino acid sequences are similar
  2. TSH, FSH, and LH are glycoproteins related to each other and to chorionic gonadotropin. Each of these hormones is composed of two protein chains called alpha and beta subunits. he alpha subunits for all three hormones are the same; differences in the beta subunit alone account for the different effects of the different hormones. 
  3. The cellular processes that lead to the hormone ACTH illustrate several general principles of gene expression. The gene that codes for ACTH also contains the code for additional peptide hormones, including beta-lipotrophin, a protein that can be processed into several members of the endorphin family of pain- and mood-modulating hormones. Different endocrine and neural tissues that express this gene secrete different mixes of these substances.
Term
hemostasis
Definition
a process that prevents or minimizes blood loss by plugging injured vessels until healing can occur
Term
Describe the 3 main kinds of negative feedback regulation in endocrine systems.
Definition
  • Hormone secretion varies to oppose changes in a feedback-regulated variable. secretion of insulin is stimulated when plasma glucose levels rise and inhibited when they fall.
  • Hormone secretion is regulated by plasma hormone levels.  
    • For those hormones that must be secreted at steady rates to sustain long-term processes like growth and sexual differentiation, feedback from the target tissues is less important and direct feedback of the hormone on the secreting gland more important. 
    • In this mechanism, high levels of the hormone secreted by a gland inhibit further secretion of the hormone, and low levels stimulate it. 
  • Target cells regulate their sensitivity based on hormone levels. 
    • In many endocrine systems, the target cells can down regulate receptor numbers in response to high levels of the corresponding hormone, decreasing their sensitivity to the hormone. A corresponding up regulation can occur when hormone levels are low.
    •  A second possibility that has the same effect occurs with hormones that are secreted as prohormones and must be converted to another form to have their full effectiveness. 
Term
Identify the actions of the nontrophic adenohypophyseal hormones.
Definition
  • Release of growth hormone (somatotropin) is stimulated by growth hormone-releasing factor (GHRF) and inhibited by a release-inhibiting factor called somatostatin. 
  • Human growth hormone is designated by the abbreviation HGH and has a central role in the control of growth throughout the body. 
    • Congenital failure to synthesize HGH leads to dwarfism. 
    • Excess of HGH leads to giantism if it occurs early in life while long bone growth is still possible. 
    • Excessive HGH that begins only after adulthood leads to a condition of deformed flat bones and phalanges called acromegaly. 
    • HGH acts by inducing the liver (and some other tissues) to synthesize specific growth factors called somatomedins (also called insulin-like growth factors or IGFs). 
  • Prolactin (PRL) has a critical role in sustaining milk production and in inhibiting reproductive cycling during lactation. 
    • Prolactin secretion is increased during pregnancy, when, along with estrogen, progesterone, and chorionic somatomammotropin, it stimulates the growth of the ducts and alveoli of mammary glands. 
    • Except during pregnancy and lactation, prolactin secretion is tonically suppressed by dopamine, a catecholamine that acts as PRL release inhibiting factor (PRLRIF).
Term
how is the membrane potential of myocadial cells different from that of pacemaker cells?
Definition

the membrane potential is relatively stable during the interval between heartbeats.

at the beginning of a hearbeat, a wave of excitation spreads from pacemakers through the myocardium.

when it reaches each individual myocardial cell and depolarizes it to threshold, this opens voltage-sensitive Na+ channels like those of neurons and skeletal muscle fibers, resulting in a similar rapid upstroke of the membrane potential.

Term
Explain the role of aldosterone 
Definition
  • Aldosterone regulates both Na+ content, and with ADH, extracellular fluid volume.
  • Changes in aldosterone levels also have the potential to affect K+ and acid-base homeostasis. 
  • Aldosterone participates in K+ regulation—an increase in plasma K+ stimulates its secretion by a direct effect on the adrenal cortex. 
Term
Describe the functions of the thyroid.
Definition
  • The two main hormones secreted by the thyroid are tetraiodothyronine (T4, also called thyroxine), and triiodothyronine (T3). 
  • Thyroid hormones stimulate the metabolism of almost all tissues, including both catabolic and anabolic pathways. 
  • They increase the rate of pumping of Na+ across plasma membranes and the ease with which Na+ leaks into cells. 
    • This creates a futile cycle that increases the turnover of ATP in cells throughout the body. 
    • Thus, thyroid secretion has a major effect on the basal metabolic rate. 
    • As a result of this increase, the rate of heat production increases. 
  • The thyroid is quite important for cold adaptation in infants and younger children.
  • Thyroid hormones are essential for normal growth and development, particularly of the nervous system. 
  • The thyroid secretes a third hormone, calcitonin, which stimulates bone calcification.
Term
hypothalamus influences neural pathways that control behavioral drives
Definition

hunger

thirst

sexual interest

Term
icterus
Definition
an excess of bilirubin, giving hte skin and sclera of the eyes a yellow tinge
Term
Describe the functions of the pancreas.
Definition
The pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland. As an exocrine gland, it secretes an alkaline juice containing digestive enzymes into the intestine. Its endocrine function is performed by thousands of small clumps of endocrine cells called islets of Langerhans, which are embedded in the exocrine tissue.

Three major protein hormones are secreted by the islets:

1. Glucagon
2. Insulin
3. Somatostatin
Term
in cardiac muscle, stretch 
Definition
increases force production
Term
Describe the function of the pineal gland.
Definition
The main hormone known to be secreted by the pineal gland is melatonin. Melatonin secretion follows a day-night cycle, with most of the hormone secreted during darkness.
The day-night cycle of the gland is set by light delivered to the eyes, so there are neural connections between the retina and the pineal gland. Melatonin is regarded as having an important role in synchronizing the twenty-four-hour cycle of the body and promoting rest during darkness.
Term
List nonglandular tissues that possess endocrine functions.
Definition
The following tissues are not classically recognized as being part of the endocrine system but do have important endocrine roles:

 Stomach: The stomach secretes gastrin, a mediator that stimulates secretion of acid and pepsin by the gastric mucosa.
 Duodenum: The duodenum secretes a large number of peptide hormones including secretin, cholecystokinin, motilin, and glucose-dependent insulinotropic hormone.
 Kidney: The kidney secretes an enzyme, renin, which controls the first step of a cascade leading to aldosterone secretion. Also, the kidney is the source of renal
erythropoietic factor, which is released when the kidney experiences an inadequate supply of oxygen and which stimulates the synthesis of the hormone erythropoietin.
The kidney also mediates the final step in activation of vitamin D into 1,25 dihydrocholecalciferol.
 Heart: The muscle fibers of the atria release a peptide hormone called atrial natriuretic factor, which is the third major hormone (along with ADH and aldosterone) that regulates kidney function.
 Placenta: The placenta is the organ that connects the developing fetus to the lining of the uterus, mediating transfer of gases between mother and fetus and delivery of nutrients. The placenta is also an important endocrine organ.
 Thymus: The thymus secretes a number of factors that promote maturation of T lymphocytes, including thymosin.
 Adipose tissue: The protein hormone leptin, which is released by adipose cells in proportion to their stored fat content, acts on the CNS to suppress appetite.
 Additional brain hormones (endorphins): The nervous system produces its own endogenous opiates. These peptide hormones are called endorphins and
enkephalins. These substances are involved in the process by which the body modulates its own pain sensitivity.
Term
the adrenal medulla secretes
Definition
epinephrine and norepinephrine
Term
interaction of motor molecules with cytoskeletal elements
Definition
  • Microtubules and microfilaments function in motility by interacting with protein complexes called motor molecules.
  • Various types of motor molecules, all powered by ATP, work by changing their shapes, moving back and forth something like microscopic legs.
  • with each cycle of shape changes, the motor molecule releases at its free end and grips at a site farther along the microtubule or microfilament.
  • mtor molecules can attach to receptors on organelles, such as mitochondria or ribosomes, and enable the organelles to walk along the microtubules of the cytoskeleton.
  • in some thypes of cell motility, motor molecules attached to one element of the cytoskeleton can cause it to slide over another element. the sliding of one set of microfilaments past another underlies muscle contraction, and hte sliding of neighboring microtubules moves cilia
Term
interatrial spetum
Definition
separates the two atria from one another longitudinally
Term
norepinephrine is the major trasmitter chemical released by
Definition
sympathetic postganglionic fibers
Term
interventricular septum
Definition
divides the two ventricles
Term
ionic solutes are expressed in
Definition
units of charge (mEq/L)
Term
iron-deficiency anemia
Definition
a genetic disease in which the synthesis of hg may be impaired
Term
Prostaglandins are key mediators in the control of
Definition
blood flow and inflammation.
Term
isovolumetric contraction
Definition
the phase of the heart cycle during which the ventricle is contracting as a closed container
Term
prostaglandins are derivatives of
Definition
arachidonic acid, a fatty acid present in plasma membranes.
Term
isovolumetric relaxation
Definition
a phase in the heart cycle after ejection in which the bicuspid valve closes and the ventricle contains the end-systolic volume of blood
Term
left atrium
Definition
one of the four chambers of the heart that receives blood returning to the heart from the lungs through the four pulmonary veins
Term
phospholipase A
Definition
a key enzyme
causes the release of arachidonic acid from phospholipids
may be stimulated by hormonal messages, increasing production of PGs.
Term
Steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (such as cortisone)
Definition
block the release of arachidonic acid and thus the synthesis of all eicosanoids.
Term
left pulmonary artery
Definition
carries blood to the lungs
Term
left ventricle
Definition
one of the four chambers of the heart that forces blood through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta
Term
leukocyte
Definition

WBC

white blood cell

Term
lymphocytes
Definition
the cells of the specific immune system, which is able to identify and direct an attack agaisnt foreign substances, microbial invaders, and other nonself materials that the body has met with previously
Term
hormones which stimulate growth of ducts and alveoli of mammary glands during pregnancy
Definition
prolactin
estrogen
progesterone
chorionic somatomammotropin
Term
macrophages
Definition
scavenger cells that phagocytize dead cells, bacteria, and other foreign materials
Term
___________ controls of PRL release
Definition
hypothalamus
Term
medullary cardiovascular center
Definition
with the onset of exercise or excitement, the first response of the center of the brain stem is removal of the parasympathetic tone, allowing the SA node to drive the heart at its spontaneous rate
Term
except during pregnancy, PRL secretion is tonically suppressed by
Definition
dopamine, a catecholamine which acts as PRL release inhibiting factor
Term
megakaryocyte
Definition
a large nucleated cell involved in the genesis of platelets
Term
hormones can have different affinities for 2 receptors. explain
Definition
1 binds the hormone at very low concentrations, having effect at very low levels.

the other may add its response when the hormone is present in higher concentration.
Term
mineralocorticoids
Definition
  • major form is aldosterone
  • have their major effect on the body's homeostatic mechanisms for Na+ and K+
Term
Sequence of events that occurs in a hormonal response mediated by a cyclic nucleotide second messenger
Definition
[image]
Term
2nd major 2nd messenger system image
Definition
[image]
Term
monocytes
Definition
agranular lymphocytes that leave the circulation and enter tissues where they transform into macrophages
Term
monocytes
Definition
leave the circulation and enter tissues, transforming into macrophages - scavenger cells that phagocytize dead cells, bacteria and other foreign materials
Term
cells maintain a very low Ca++ concentration in their cytoplasm by 
Definition
active secretion of Ca++ accross the plasma membrane, and by concentrating the Ca++ within intracellular structures.
Term
Ca++ is actively involved in activating secretion in
Definition
exocrine and endocrine glands.
Term
myocardial action potential
Definition
[image]
Term
myocardium
Definition
the thickest, middle layer of the heart, composed mainly of the fibers of cardiac muscle that cause contraction
Term
For smooth muscle and nonmuscle cells, the major Ca++ binding protein is 
Definition
a protein called calmodulin
Term
name the 2 arteries which form a continuous belt around the atrioventricular groove
Definition

circumflex artery

right coronary artery

Term
tyrosine-kinase coupled receptors are involved in
Definition
 the response to thyroid hormones and growth factors.
Term
name the currents recorded by EKG during the heart cycle
Definition
  • atrail depolarization - P wave
  • atrial repolarization - QRS complex
  • Ventricular depolarization - T wave
  • period when the whole mass of the atria is depolarized, when there is no voltage difference between different parts of the atria and no current flows around the tissue - baseline - PQ interval and 
  • period when ventricles are completely depolarized - ST segment
Term

tyrosine-kinase coupled receptors in the unactivated state

Definition
the receptors exist in the plasma membrane as single-pass monomers with an extracellular domain that can recognize the corresponding hormone and an intracellular domain that has weak tyrosin kinase activity
Term
name the three major groups of functions
Definition
transport of nutrients, wastes, gases, hormones and heat

regulation of the fluid environment of cells

protection against loss of extracellular fluid through hemostasis and against microbial invasion by mediation of immune responses
Term
Mechanism of Tyrosine-kinase coupled receptors: image
Definition
[image]
Term
neutrophils
Definition
engage in phagocytosis of foreign bodies
nucleus consists of 3-5 lobes connected by strands.
variable structure, so sometimes called polymorphs or polymorphonuclear leukocytes
Term
nodal fibers
Definition
specialized fibers that serve as pacemakers, generating regular action potentials
Term
nodal fibers are specialized to serve as 
Definition
pacemakers which generate regular action potentials
Term
when a steroid hormone complex approaches the plasma membrane of a cell,
Definition
the steroid may detach and dissolve in the lipid membrane.
Term
non-formed elements of blood
Definition
plasma
Term
steroid hormones enter the cell
Definition

and are carried to the nucleus. If the cell is a target cell, the steroid binds with a protein nuclear receptor.

If the cell is not a target cell, there is no effect.

Term
nonionic solutes are expressed as
Definition
mg/dl
Term
time scale required for action of steroid hormones
Definition
hours to days
Term
normal ESR
Definition
2-10 mm/hr, average rate higher for women than men
Term
normal heart sounds are caused by
Definition

valve closures.

 

Term

normal sinus rhythm

 

Definition
[image]
Term
In the neurohypophysis, neursecretory cells with cell bodies in 2 hypothalamic nuclei extend their axons through the stalk of the pituitary and form axon terminals in the neurohypophysis, which release
Definition
peptide hormones
Term
the terminals that emanate from neurons in the paraventricular nucleus release
Definition
the octapeptide hormone oxytocin
Term

oxytocin release: 2 specific roles in femal reproduction

 

Definition

potenitiates uterine contractions during labor

 

promotes contraction of mammary ducts leading to milk ejection during lactation

Term
parasypathetic tone
Definition
at rest and during sleep, the parasympathetic input dominates the heart. As a result, the heart rate is perhaps 60-70 beats/min instead of the approximately 100 beats/min that could be expected with no input at all
Term
antidiuretic hormone is released by
Definition
the terminals that emanate from the supra optic nucleus in the neurohypophysis
Term
passive filling
Definition
a period during diastole in which blood flows through the atria and into the ventricles under the relatively low pressure of blood in veins (several mm Hg)
Term
the hypothalamus controls
Definition

internal body conditions:

body temp

energy supplies

fluid volume regulation

reproductive cycling

Term
pericardium
Definition
a double membrane enclosing the heart
Term
hypothalamus regulates body conditions by releasing
Definition
adenohypophyseal hormones
Term
the six secretions of the adenohypophesis table
Definition
[image]
Term
releasing factors which control secretion of adenohypophyseal hormones are secreted by
Definition
hypothalamopituitary portal system
Term
plasma
Definition
  • the clear straw-colored fluid component of blood
  • consists of about 92% water, 7% protein, 1% salts, of which the major one is NaCl
  • contains various materials being transported, including:
    • gases: O2 and CO2
    • nutrients
    • wastes
    • hormones
Term
hypothalamopituitary portal system
Definition

a special variety of blood circulation that involves 2 sets of capillaries connected by one or more portal veins.

In this system, blood first flows through capillaries in the hypothalamus where it collects the secreted releasing factors.

It then passes to the 2nd set of capillaries in the adenohypohphysis where the releasing factors are delivered to the endocrine cells

Term
plasminogen
Definition
an inactive plasma protein that is incorporated into clots to digest fibrin
Term
tropic hormones
Definition
hormones that control the function of other endocrine glands.
Term
platelets
Definition

the smallest of the formed elements, only 1-2 microns in diameter.

they are the cellular component of the process of hemostasis

Term
three classificaitons of adenohyphyseal hormones based on structures
Definition
  1. hormones possessing substantial sequence homology - long stretches of their amino acids are simila
    1. HGH
    2. PRL
  2. glycoproteins related to each other and to chorionic gonadotropin. composed of 2 protein chains called alpha and beta subunits. alpha subunits for all three hormones are the same.
    1. TSH
    2. FSH
    3. LH
  3. cellular processes that lead to ACTH illustrate several general principles of gene expression. The gene that codes for ACTH also contains codes for peptide hormones including beta-lipotrophin

 

Term
polycythemia
Definition
an excess of RBCs
Term

ACTH Production

  1. primary transcript of the gene is translatd into a protein sequence called proopiomelanocortin (POMC) that serves as a ____a_____.
  2. Posttranslational processing snips the prohormone's sequence to yield _______b_____.
  3. The ______c______ of the adenohypophysis snip POMC at 2 points in the middle of the sequence to yield ACTH, discarding the 2 scraps.
Definition

A. prohormone

B. shorter sequences of the various hormones

C. corticotrophs

 

Term
precordial leads
Definition
an exploring electrode that may be attached to any of six locations ranging from near the sternum to theleft lateral surface of the chest to gain information about currents flowing in the anterior-posterior axis of the heart
Term
The POMC sequence includes a family of hormones called
Definition
melanocyte-stimulating hormones (MSH) that are important in animals that change color, but have no apparent function in humans.
Term
prepotential
Definition
a drift due to several slowly changing membrane permeabilities, including a set of K+ channels that close slowly after each action potential and a set of Ca++ channels (T Ca++ channels) that begin to open during depolarization.
Term
Explain the role of cortisol
Definition
  • Cortisol favors resistance to several specific stressors: 
    • Survival of food deprivation and recovery from injury. 
      • Within a few hours after a meal, the body enters a state called the postabsorptive state in which it is no longer receiving nutrients from food in the intestine and must begin to draw upon its reserves of stored energy. 
      • Cortisol is an important hormone of the postabsorptive state, the other main hormones being epinephrine from the adrenal medulla and glucagon from the pancreas. 
      • This combination of hormones has three main effects: 
        • an increase in the breakdown of glycogen stores in the liver and muscle
        • an increase in fat breakdown
        • an increase in the rate of breakdown of nonessential proteins, making their amino acids available for synthesis of essential proteins and/or for metabolism for energy.
    •  Resistance to infection. Appropriate levels of cortisol are necessary for vigorous immune responses. 
    • Paradoxically, high levels of cortisol suppress some aspects of immune function, and cortisol can be used as a drug for this purpose.
Term
secretion of LH in women occurs in 
Definition
several pulses throughout the day and is suppressed during sleep
Term
prolactin - critical roles
Definition
sustaining milk production
inhibiting reproductive cycling during lactation
Term
prolactin secretion is increased
Definition
during pregnancy and sustained after delivery by a neural reflex initiated by suckling
Term
secretion of testosterone and cortisol 
Definition
rise and fall throughout the day in response to life events
Term
prostaglandin formation occurs in the
Definition
lipid environment of plasma membranes.
Term
prostaglandins are composed of a
Definition
20 carbon skeleton folded to form a hairpin structure by formation of a 5 carbon ring at the head of the hairpin.
Term
Somatostatin
Definition
  • is an example of a single chemical mediator with multiple roles in different tissues:
    • hormone-releasing factor GHRF
    • serves as a GI tract hormone
Term
prothrombin
Definition
a plasma protein
Term
pulmonary trunk
Definition
branches into the right and left pulmonay arteries that carry blood to the lungs
Term
pulmonary veins
Definition
carries blood returning to the heart from the lungs
Term
purpose of ADP
Definition
attracts additional platelets and causes the new platelets to become sticky
Term
Except during pregnancy and lactation, prolactin is tonically suppressed by
Definition
dopamine, a catecholamine that acts as PRL release inhibiting factor (PRLIF)
Term
the adrenals
Definition
  • sit on kidneys
  • each consists of 2 very dissimilar glands
    • adrenal medulla
      • inner portion
      • branch of the sympathetic nervous system that secretes catecholamines
    • adrenal cortex
      • outer part
      • secretes steroid hormones
Term
Describe the adrenal medulla
Definition
  • a collection of chromaffin cells - sympathetic postganglionic neurons that lack axons and are modified to serve as a neurosecretory organ, releasing the catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream.
  • preganglionic cells that control adrenal medullary secretion are located in spinal segments T6-T11.
    • the axons of these neurons course in the thoracic splanchnic nerves, pass through the celiac plexus and terminate in the adrenal medulla.
Term
the sympathetic branch of the autonomic motor system is activated during 
Definition
emotional stress or any threat or perceived threat to the body's integrity, including blood loss, starvation, cold exposure, exercise
Term
3 functional classes of steroids secreted by the adrenal cortex
Definition
  • mineralocorticoids
  • glucocorticoids
  • gonadocorticoids
Term
right atrium
Definition
one of the four chambers of the heart that receives blood from three veins, the superior and inferior venae cavae and the coronary sinus
Term
Glucocorticoids
Definition
  • major form is cortisol
  • major effects are on energy production during fasting and on immune system function.
  • are released during a variety of stressful life situations, including starvation, exhaustive exercise, intense emotion, and injury (including surgery)
Term
gonadocorticoids
Definition
  • sex hormones
  • adrenal cortex secretes both adrongenic and estrogenic steroids.
Term
pathways for synthesis of the 3 major families of adrenal steroids
Definition
[image]
Term
right ventricle
Definition
one of the four chambers of the heart that receives blood from the right atrium and pumps it through the pulmonary sumilunar valve that leads into the pulmonary trunk
Term
aldosterone levels are normally regulated primarily by
Definition
renin-angiotensins pathway
Term
cortisol levels exercise tonic negative feedback on
Definition
ACTH secretion
Term
rough ER
Definition
studded with ribosomes

proteins assembled on the ribosomes thread into the fluid filled interior of the ER cisternae

functions: ribosomes manufacture all proteins secreted from cells; is the cell's membrane factory, manufactures integral proteins and phospholipids which form the cellular membranes; enzymes needed to catalyze lipid synthesis have their active sites on the external face of the ER membrane, where needed substrates are readily available.
Term
route blood through the left heart
Definition
  • blood enters the left atrium from the 4 pulmonary veins which return oxygenated blood to the heart
  • blood passes through the mitral or bicuspid valve
  • enters the left ventricle
  • contraction of the left ventricle forces blood through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta
Term
route blood through the right heart
Definition
  • blood enters the right atrium
  • passes through the tricuspid valve
  • enters the right ventricle
  • is pumped through the pulmonary simlunar valve that leads to the pulmonary trunk
  • the pulmonary trunk branches into the right and left pulmonary arteries that carry blood to the lungs
Term
second heart sound
Definition
results from the closure of the pulmonary and aortic valves
Term
renin secretion is stimulated by 2 factors
Definition
  1. decrease in the Na+ concentration of blood (hyponatremia), an indicaotr of a need to conserve more Na+
  2. A decrease in the rate of blood flow to the kidney, an indicator of hypovolemia, a need to form additional extracellular fluid
Term
seminlunar valve
Definition
the pulmonary and aortic valves
Term
additonal effects of aldosterone
Definition
  • in the distal tubule, the part of the renal tubule that responds to aldosterone, the recovery of Na+ from the tubular fluid must be matched by secretion of K+ and H+ to maintain electric charge neutrality.
  • changes in aldosterone levels also have the potential to affect K+ and acid-base homeostasis.
  • aldosterone participates in K+ regluation - an increase in plasma K+ stimulates its secretion by a direct effect on the adrenal cortex.
  • an excess of aldosterone, which occurs in some disorders of the adrenal cortex, causes a syndrome of elevated blood pressure (hypertension), depressed plasma K+ (hypokalemia), and excessive plasma alkalinity (alkalosis)
Term
serous pericardium
Definition
the inner layer of the pericardium, which is continuous with the epicardium
Term
addison syndrome
Definition
  • supply of adrenal steroids is inadequate
  • characteristics (J F Kennedy)
    • Muscle weakness and fatigue
    • Weight loss and decreased appetite
    • Darkening of your skin (hyperpigmentation)
    • Low blood pressure, even fainting
    • Salt craving
    • Low blood sugar (hypoglycemia)
    • Nausea, diarrhea or vomiting
    • Muscle or joint pains
    • Irritability
    • Depression
Term
serum
Definition
resulting from the removal of the proteins involving in clotting, it is a more stable form of plasma that may be used medicinally as a source of gamma globulins
Term
Cushings Syndrome
Definition
  • excess mineralocorticoid causes a condition of hypervolemic hypertension.
  • excess glucocorticoid cuases mobilization of fat, particularly from the lower body, leaving excess fat deposits in the face and upper body
  • protein is also mobilized with the effect that muscle mass diminishes and tissues become more delicate
  • anti-insulin effects of glucocorticoid cause a decrease in tissue glycogen stores and an elevation of plasma glucose levels
Term
sickly cell anemia
Definition
a genetic disease in which the synthesis of hg may be impaired
Term

sinoatrial node

SA node

Definition
nodal fibers in the right atrium near the opening of the superior vena cava that are spontaneously active, giving the heart the property automaticity
Term
Thyroid - anatomy
Definition
a butterfly shaped gland located anterior to the trachea and just inferior to the larynx.
Term
specific gravity
Definition
the ratio between the weight of the liquid and that of an equal volume of pure water, which by definition has a specific gravity of 1.000. The specific gravity of adult blood ranges from 1.050-1.060
Term
specific gravity
Definition
the ratio between the weight of the liquid and that of an equal volume of pure water, which by definition has a specific gravity of 1.000
Term
Rates of thyroid secretion are controlled by
Definition
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) which is secreted by the adenohypophesis in response to hypthalamic TSH releasing factor (TSHrf)
Term
specific gravity of adult blood range
Definition
1.050-1.060
Term
The majority of secreted T4 and T3 
Definition
do not travel in the blood as free hormones, but must be bound to a specific carrier protein
Term
specific immune system
Definition
able to identify and direct an attack against foreign substances, microbial invaders and other non-self materials that the body has met with previously.
Term
Which  of the thyroid hormones is more potent and is considered the main thyroid hormone?
Definition
T3
Term
steroid hormones
Definition

poorly water soluble

 

travel in the blood as complexes with specific carrier proteins.

Term
What is the most potent stimulus for conversion of T4 to T3
Definition
eating, particularly of carbohydrates, thus some ill patients sometimes develop hypthyroid-like symptoms that can be reversed by improved nutrition.
Term
steroids are derivatives of
Definition
cholesterol, a complex, fat-soluble molecule
Term
stroke volume
Definition
blood that is ejected from the ventricle into the artery, rapidly raising the arterial pressure from the diastolic pressure to the systolic pressure
Term

BMR is measured by

 

Definition
measuring the rate of oxygen uptake by subjects who are awake and resting quietly in a warm room.
Term
sustole pressure
Definition
the valve achieved at the peak of blood ejection from the ventril into the artery
Term
Early thyroid deficiency leads to
Definition
growth failure and a form of mental retardation called hypothyroid cretinism
Term
symport system
Definition
coupled system in which 2 substances are transported in the same direction
Term
Why does failure of the thyroid to produce T4 and T3 lead to development of a goiter?
Definition
in the absence of a negative feedback to the hypthalamus and pituitary, there is excessive secretion of TSH.
Term
systolic murmer
Definition
the muted swishing or blowing sound heard when the mitral valves fail to close tightly, and blood is forced backward from ventricle to atrium during systole
Term

Which hormones are key mediators in the control of blood flow and inflammation?

 

  1. peptides
  2. prostaglandins
  3. steroids
  4. tyrosine derivatives
Definition
2. Prostaglandins
Term

To affet the synthesis of particular proteins, the complex of steroid hormone and its nuclear receptor must be able to interact with particular _____ in the nucleaus

 

  1. carrier proteins
  2. genes
  3. receptors
  4. target cells
Definition
2. genes
Term
the 2 lobes of the pituitary are separated anatomically by
Definition
an itnermediate lobe (pars intermedia)
Term

What type of tissue is the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland composed of?

 

  1. adipose
  2. connective
  3. epithelial
  4. neural
Definition
4. neural
Term
the action potential of cardiac contracting fibers is extremely _____ compared to skeletal muscle fibers
Definition
long
Term

Which of the following is composed of two protein chains called alpha and beta subunits?

 

  1. ACTH
  2. FSH
  3. Growth hormone
  4. Prolactin
Definition

Prolactin is incorrect

 

fsh?

Term
the atria and ventricles of the heart fill with venous blood during the period of 
Definition
diastole
Term

The adrenal medulla is a branch of the sympathetic nervous system that secretes

 

  1. catecholamines
  2. gonadocorticoids
  3. glucocorticoids
  4. mineralocorticoids
Definition
1. catecholamines
Term

Which steroid plays an important role in regulating Na+ and extracellular fluid volume?

 

  1. Aldosterone
  2. Cholesterol
  3. Cortisol
  4. Progesterone
Definition
1. Aldosterone
Term

Which one of the following is not affected - directly or indirectly - by PTH?

 

  1. bone
  2. intestine
  3. kidney
  4. pancreas
Definition
4. pancreas
Term
the delayed repolarization ensures 
Definition
the period of contraction is essentially over by the time the cardiac refractory period ends. this fact makes tetanic contractions of heart muscle practically impossible.
Term

The day-night cycle of the ______ gland is set by light delivered to the eyes, so there are neural connections between the retina and this gland

 

  1. adrenal
  2. endocrine
  3. pineal
  4. pituitary
Definition
3. pineal
Term
the first hemopoietic stem cells arise in
Definition
the yolk sac starting at about 3 weeks of age
Term
mitochondria
Definition
threadlike, sausage shaped membranous organelles

power plant of the celll, provide most of ATP supply
Term
the hemocytoblast may give rise to separate cell lines that lead ultimately to
Definition
erythrocytes, granulocytes, lymphocytes, monocytes and platelets.
Term
Mitochondria contain their own _____ and ______, and are able to reproduce themselves
Definition
DNA
RNA
Term
Ribosomes
Definition
small dark staining granules composed of proteins and a variety of RNA called ribosomal RNA.

protein synthesis
Term
the last step in formation of erythrocytes,
Definition
loss of nucleus
Term
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Definition
extensive system of interconected tubes and parallel membranes enclosing fluid filled cavities or cisternae.
Term
the last step in formation of platelets
Definition
budding off of numerous platelets from a large nucleated cell called megakaryocyte
Term
Smooth ER
Definition
is a continuation of the rough ER and consists of tubules arranged in a looping network

Its enzymes play no role in protein synthesis
Term
enzymes of the smooth ER catalyze reactions involved with these processes:
Definition
1. Lipid metabolism, cholesterol synthesis, synthesis of lipid components of lipoproteins (in liver cells)

2. Synthesis of steroid-based hormones
3. absorption, synthesis, transport of fats
4. detox of drugs, certain pesticides, carcinogens
5. breakdown of stored glycogen to form free glucose
Term
the pituitary enclosed in 
Definition
a pocket in the sphenoid bone called the sella turcica
Term
Golgi apparatus
Definition
consists of stacked and flattened membranous sacs associated with swarms of tiny membranous vesicles

is the principle traffic director for cellular proteins
Term
the right atrium opens into the right ventricle by
Definition

the tricuspid valve

(right atrioventricular valve)

Term
Lysosomes
Definition
disintegrator bodies

spherical membranous organelles containing digestive enzymes
Term
How lysosomes behave in Tay-Sachs disease
Definition
lysosomes lack an enzyme needed to break down a glycolipid abundant in nerve cell membranes. As a result, nerve cell lysosomes swell with undigested lipids, which interfere with nervous system functioning.
1st signs at 3-6 months of age (listlessness, motor weakness) progresses to mental retardation, seizures and death by 18 months.
Term
peroxisomes
Definition
membranous sacs containing a variety of powerful enzymes

self replicated by pinching in half of preexisting peroxisomes
Term
thrombin
Definition
a plasma protein that converts fibrinogen into fibrin
Term
oxidases use _________ _________ to detoxify harmful substances including alcohol and formaldehyde
Definition
molecular oxygen
Term
thrombocytes
Definition
platelets
Term
most important function of oxidases
Definition
neutralize free radicals
Term
thrombus
Definition
clot
Term
oxidases convert free radicals to ____________ __________ which is then converted to water by catalase enzymes.
Definition
Hydrogen peroxide
Term
thyroid gland is composed of
Definition
  • millions of thyroid follicles
  • each follicle consists of a single layer of cuboidal epithelial cells currounding a center space filled with a protein matrix called colloid
    • the colloid acts as a reservoir for iodine accumulated in the thyroid from the blood
    • the iodine combines with tyrosine residues of the colloid
  • to support thyroid secretion, colloid is taken up by follicle cells and the iodinated tyrosines are removed and converted into T4 and T3
Term
cytoskeleton
Definition
elaborate series of rods running through the cytosol.
Term
time scale difference between steroid hormones and hormones that act on cell surface
Definition

cell-surface-acting hormones typically turn on or off enzymes that are already in place within the cell

 

steroid hormones must await the transcription of new mRNA, the synthesis of new proteins, and their integration into cellular machinery.

Term
Microfilaments
Definition

thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton

strands of actin

each cell has its own unique arrangement of microfilaments, no 2 cells are alike.

Term
total peripheral resistance (TPR)
Definition
a net resistance to blood flow; a whole-body value that is affected by dilation or constriction of blood vessels (specifically the arterioles) thorugout the body
Term
Intermediate filaments
Definition

tough, insoluble protein fibers that have a diameter between those of microfilaments and microtubules.

 

are the most stable and permanent of the cytoskeletal elements and have high tensile strength, acting as internal guy wires to resist pulling forces exerted on the cell and attach to desmosomes

Term
transfusion of blood between genetically different individuals can result in the development of a
Definition

primary immune response against those antigens that the recipient does not express.

 

Term
centrioles
Definition
  • small, barrel-shaped organelles oriented at right angles to each other
  • centrosome matrix is best known for generation of microtublules and its role of organizing the mititoic spindle
  • each centriole consists of a pinwheel array of 9 triplets of microtubules, arranged to form a hollow tube
  • form the bases of cilia and flagella
Term
type O red cells will not be attacked by
Definition
the antibodies of any of the other ABO types (universal donor)
Term
Cilia
Definition
whiplike, motile cellular extensions that occur, typically in large numbers, on exposed surfaces of certain cells.
Term
Centrioles forming the bases of cilia and flagella are commonly referred to as _____ ______
Definition
basal bodies
Term
vena cava
Definition
brings blood back to the heart from the superior and inferior parts of the body
Term
as a cilium moves, it alternates rhythmically between a propulsive ______ stroke, when it is nearly straight and moves in an arch and a _________recovery stroke, when it bends and returns to its initial position.
Definition

power

recovery

Term
ventricular filling is completed by 
Definition
atrial contraction (atrial systole)
Term
all body cells have a nucleus with the exception of
Definition
mature red blood cells - they eject the nucleus prior to enetering the blood stream.
Term
ventricular hypertrophy
Definition
abnormal increases in the mass of the heart msucle in response to chronic overload
Term
cells in the body which might be multinucleate include
Definition
skeletal muscle cells, bone destruction cells and some liver cells
Term
viscosity
Definition
a measure of the fluid's resistance to flow
Term
anucleate
Definition
  • means without nucleus
  • mature RBCs are the only anucleate cells in the human body
  • mature RBCs cannot reproduce and therefore live in the bloodstream 3-4 months and then deteriorate.
  • without a nucleaus, a cell cannot produce mRNA to make proteins, and when its enzymes and cell structures start to break down, they cannot be replcaed.
Term
viscosity of the blood is affected by
Definition
changes in its content of plasma proteins or RBCs
Term
The actual initiation of DNA synthesis requires formation of short ___ _______ by primase enzymes which are part of the replisome. These are eventually replaced by DNA nucleotides
Definition
RNA Primers
Term
CONTACT INHIBITION
Definition
phenomenon by which normal cells stop proliferating when they begin to touch.
Term
RNA differs from DNA in having the base _____ instead of _______.
Definition
uracil instead of thymine
Term
which are the smallest formed elements?
Definition
platelets, at 1-2 microns in diamter
Term
which cardiac loop has a higher pressure and why
Definition
the left - it has to pump the same volume of blood against the greater resistance of the systemic loop
Term
3 types of RNA
Definition
  • Transfer RNA (tRNA) - small, roughly cloverleaf shaped molecules
  • Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - part of the ribosomes
  • Messenger RNA (mRNA) - relatively long nucleotide strands resembling "half-DNA" molecules, or one of the two strands of a DNA molecule.

 

Term
which group of plasma proteins is specifically involved in forming blood clots?
Definition
fibrinogen
Supporting users have an ad free experience!