axial: head, neck, thorax, abdomen, pelvis and perineum

and

appendicular=limbs, including girdles (attachments of appendages)

Sagital  separates left from right

the midsagital section is a cut directly down the midline, while parasagital is an off midline cut

Toward the head/above;

away from head/below

towards the front of the body/ventral;

towards the back of the body/dorsal

At or near point of origin/attachment;

away from point of origin/attachment

towards the surface of the body;

towards the core

at/near/toward the midline;

away from the midline

on the same side;

on the opposite side;

nervous

Light Microscope (LM) which is used to view larger microscopic structures, and provides true color.  EX Cell,tissue, organs, some organelles

 Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM) which is used to study smaller more specific parts of microscopic structures called ultrastructure. EX. Organelles

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), which is used to see surface detail, and provides a 3-D image

1. Fixation - preserve specimen to prevent postmortem change

2. Embed - providing a support around the specimen (I.E. Wax)

3. Section - slice specimen thin enough to allow light/electrons to pass through

4. Stain - Allows specimen to be visualized

Dyes are charged, and therefore bind to tissue components of opposite charge.

Basic dye has a positive charge, Hematoxylin is a blue basic dye.

Acidic dye has a negative charge, Eosin is a pink acidic dye.

plama lemma, it is composed of the phospholipid bilayer, proteins, and oligosacharides

It acts as a boundary between the internal cell environment and the external environment.

It also determines what materials enter and exit the cell via diffusion, facilitated transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.

 a network of interconnecting tube or sacs made of membranes

The rough endoplasmic reticulum and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

It is the site of synthesis of ribosomal sub units.

The cell will have as many as are necessary to it's functioning.

Heterochromatin is condensed chromatin that cannot be transcribed.

It stains darkly

It is a relaxed chromatin which is easily transcribed.

It appears to be clear or lightly stained since it is not condensed like heterochromatin

it provides tensile strength to resist pulling forces within the cell.

They are used diagnostically to determine the source of a cancer, due to their stability.

Microfilaments, which are not stable (constant turnover)

intermediate filaments which are extremely stable

Microtubules which are not stable (constant turnover)

Epithelium (epithelial tissue)

Connective tissue

Muscle Tissue

Nervous Tissue

Sheets of cells that cover the body surfaces and line body cavities and line hollow organs.

It sits on the basal lamina (which is acellular) between 2 different environments (one is connective tissue, the side with the changing environment is where the epithelial cells are located)

1. cellular (very little intercellular space/material)

2. Specialized cell junctions between cells (cell-cell contact)

3. Polarity, i.e. 2 distinct regions (apical, or top of cell, and basal, or bottom of cell)

4. Always associated w/ connective tissue

5. Avascular - no blood vessels (connective tissue houses blood vessels for nutrients and defensive cells) and innervative

6. Regenerative capability

They are classified by cell layers and the shape of the apical (top) cells.

Layers, simple is one layer, and 2 or more is stratified.

Shape, squamous is flat, cuboidal is cubic, columnar is taller than it is wide (nucleus is basal)

Simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal, stratified columnar, Pseudostratified columnar epithelium, and transitional epithelium

Dry and moist, dry being the skin and are distinguished by their lack of nuclei in the apical cells.

Moist has nuclei in it's apical cells and lines the mouth esophagus, etc.

simple stratified

Makes and secretes a product

Endocrine glands secrete product (hormone) into the Extra Cellular Matrix (ECM) and/or in the blood vessels.

Exocrine glands secrete their product onto the surface of epithelial cells, multicellular glands secrete via a duct.

Apical is the top of the cell, which may have cilia and microvilli

Basal is the base of the cell which is attached to the basal lamina, which is a filter that provides support.  It is on a reticular lamina (layer of reticular fibers) and both are known as the basement membrane.

Lateral is the sideof the cell which may have cell junctions.

Microvili are short fingerlike projections of the cell membrane used to increase the surfaces areas and therefore absorption and ion transport.

Cilia are long fingerlike projections, which are more motile, and composed of an organized core of microtubules. they are used to move more material over/across the surface of the epithelium.

Tight junction (zonula occludens) is the most apical and goes around the circumference of the cell, preventing passage of material between neighboring cells

Zonula Adherans is below the zonula occludens, goes around circ of cell, and prevents cells from separating, involves actin/microfilaments

Desmosornes is located anywhere, but forms spot welds, and is the toughest of all junctions located in the areas where separation is likely.  It is made ofKeratin (an intermediate filament)

 Gap Junctions is where proteins between 2 adjacent cells form a channel between adjacent cells for ion transport.

Connective tissue proper, which is either loose (areolar) CT which has the widest distribution and always associated with epithelium and surrounds BV and nerves, or dense CT (which has an abundance of callogen fibers)

  and

Specialized connective tissue, which always have a special extra cellular matrix (like bone)

the mast cell (contains granules of histamine) mediates inflamation

the macrophage is a phagocyte

the plasma cell makes and secretes antibodies

the white blood cells: neutrophil, lymphocyte, and eosinophil

The Adipocyte (Fat cell) stores fat (energy)

The abundance of fibers (callogen)

the two types of Dense CT are irregular and regular, regular has organized callogen into one dierction to resist pull from 1 direction (tendons and ligaments are regular)

Irregular has callogen which is not organized in 1 direction, which resists pulling in all directions (like the dermis of the skin and organ capsules)

Areolar LCT is under the epithelium surrounded by blood vessels and nerves

Dense CT has an abundance of callogen fibers

Dense irregular CT has unorganized callogen, which allows for it to be pulled in all directions.

Dense Regular CT has callogen organized in one direction, which allows for pulling along that direction.

Elastic CT is a type of DCT with an abundance of elstiv fibers, but has limited distribution in the body.

The indegument (Skin) and the appendages (outgrowths) of the skin, like the hair, nails,

mammary, sweat and sebaceous glands

1. Keratinocyte (makes keratin, and is most abundant)

2.Melanocyte (makes melanin that provides UV protection)

3. Merkal cell (disk, deals with touch perception: associated with a nerve)

4. Langerhans Cell (has an immune function)

it is the stratum basale- 1st cell layer

stem cells- give rise to keratinocytes

Melanocyte (10-25%) only in Stratum Basale

Merkel Cells

Connective tissue divided into 2 basic layers:

The papillarylayer, which contains areolar LCT (20% of the dermis)

  The reticular layer, which contains DICT (80% of the dermis.

It contains 5% of the blood vessels which helps with thermo regulation

Outgrowths/downgrowths of the epidermis (epithelium) that are always associated with connective tissue.  They consist of:

Nail and hair (made from hard keratin)

 Sebaceous glands and sweat glands

Shaft= above skin

Root= below skin

Simple coiled tubular gland that release sweat (99% H2O, ions, urea)

They function to cool the body and extrete

the eccrine glands, the normal sweat glands which have a general distribution over the body

the apocrine glands release sweat that also contains fats and proteins, and have a limited distribution on the body (the perineum and the axilla (the anus and external genetalia and the arm pits))

Cartilage (Chondro-) has a firm but wet (70% H20) matrix with no blood vessels and no nerves, that contains delicate callogen fibrils and proteoglycans, and it resists compression. Chondrocyte is the cell in cartilage located in a lacuna, it has no intercellular connections.  Surrounded by the Perichondrium

 Describe the perichondrium

Hyaline (glassy) Cartilage - most abundant and studied, serves as model.  No fibers are visible, and it has a smooth appearance.  They are articular cartilage and Growth plates, and most of the fetal skeleton.

Elastic cartilage (modified Hyaline)- abundant elastic fibers, visible. Flexible and can bend, found in the outer ear, and epiglotis.

 Fibrocartilage (fibro=callogen fibers, modifified hyaline, mix between hyaline cart and DRCT)- has an abundance of callogen fibers. On pubic symphisis, intervertebral disc, and meniscus.

Compact Bone - External, looks solid, surrounded by the periosteum. Contains osteons (haversian systems) which run parallel to the long axis of bone. the matrix is highly organized to resist twisting.

Spongy bone -  internal, looks like a sponge, is covered by the endosteum, it is organized in tension line. Has holes and no osteons (no need for BV). Is lamellar bone, which has osteoblasts on it.

it is a membrane that surrounds the external surfaces of the bone except where there is articular cartilage, attached by sharpeys fibers (callogen) and has 2 layers.

The outer fibrous layer is DICT which houses blood vessels and nerves

The inner cellular layer houses osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts, the cells used for growth and remodeling

Osteoblast deposits bone ECM

Osteoclast breaks bone down ECM

They are the junctions between osteocytes and ostecytes, and osteoblasts and osteocytes.

1. Osteo progenitor cell young version of

2. osteoblast young version of

3. osteocyte the mature cell.

osteoclast

Organic includes cells, the matrix (callogen fibers) that provides tensile strength, some ground substance, and makes up 35% of the bone tissue

Inorganic includes the matrix which is composted of hydroxyapatite crystals (calcium and phosphate) and calcium and phosphate in non-crystalline form, and compose 65% of the bone tissue Both are extremely important for the physical properties of bone

Intramembranous = within the membrane of mesenchyme where there is no cartilage involved, flat bones, mesenchyme --> osteoblasts --> bone

Endochondral = most common, uses hyaline cartilage. Mesenchyme --> a hyaline cartilage model --> Cartilage matrix calcifies, cells die, and cavity is formed --> periosteal bud invade – bv osteoproginator cells, and osteoclasts --> bone deposited on calcified cartilage --> Cartilage remains at the articular surface and at the growth plates

There is a resting zone (reserve of cartilage)

A growth (proliferation) zone where cartilage cells undergo mitosis

Hypertrophic zone where older cartilage cells enlarge

The calcification zone where matrix becomes calcified and cartilage cells die

Ossification zone where new bone formation occurs

Synarthrosis (no movement)

Amphiarthrosis (some movement)

Diarthrosis (freely movable, most abundant)

Fibrous (DCT callagen fibers, no joint cavity)

Cartilaginous (cartilage, no joint cavity)

Synovial (Articular capsule, most abundant, has cavities with synovial fluid)

Sutures=skull

Gomphosis=point where tooth fits socket

 Syndesmosis=ligament, short or long callogen fibers

1. Articular (hyaline) cartilage

2. Articular capsule (fibrous capsule and synovial membrane)

3. Joint cavity (contains synovial fluid)

4. Ligament

5. BV and nerves

Capsule ligaments are thickenings of fibrous articular capsule, and are not dissectable

Extra/intracapsular can be dissected, extracapsular being outside the capsule, and intracapsular running through the joint cavity

Articular discs which are a meniscus made of fibrocartilage. They improve the fit, allow for 2 different movements in 1 joint, and absorb shock

Bursae and tendon sheaths function to reduce friction, both being bags of synovial fluid. Bursae is the most common, and tendon sheaths are only found around tendons.

1. Gliding – the sliding of flat bones

2. Angular- changing the angle between the bones and the joints

3. Rotational – turn/rotate around the long axis of the bone

Flexion means moving towards the joint, Dorsiflexion means moving the muscle away from the joint

Abduction means moving away from the midline, adduction means moving towards the midline

Circumduction means a cone in the air, combining the 4 other angular movments

1. Plane joints

2. Hinge joints

3. Pivot joints

4. Condyloid joints

5. Saddle joint

6. Ball and socket joint

1.Articular surfaces

2.Ligaments (more ligaments more stability)

3. Muscle tone- constant low level contraction of muscles whose tendons cross the joint

Intracapsular = anterior and posterior cruciate

Extracapsular = Medial and lateral collaterals (tibular and fibular respectively), and the arcuate and oblique popiteal

Epimysium - DICT that surrounds whole muscle

Perimycium - DCT surrounds muscle fascicles

 Endomysium - Made of reticular fibers, it srrounds a muscle fiber

Origins - less movable attachment

Insertion- more movable attachment

Insertion is always pulled towards the origin during attachment.

They are long attachments made with callogen fibers:

Tendons - Ropelike (most common)

Aponeurosis - flat CT Sheet (like the tensor facia latae)

Raphe - midline seam of CT (Like Acromiotrapezius)

that filaments dont shorten, they simply slide past eachother

Myosin pulls actin across itself, pulling the z discs closer, the sarcomere's shorten, the myofibrils shorten, and the muscle fibers shorten. (I band and H zone shorten)

1. Nerve signal/impulse - travels from axon to sarcolemma, releasing calcium from SER

2. Calcium binds to actin, allowing myosin to bind to it

It is located at the A/I junction, consists of 1 t tubule, and terminal cisternae of SER.

The close relationship of T tubule and SER ensueres that all/each myobiril in a fiber contracts at the same time.

CNS= Brain and spinal cord

PNS= anything outside the brain and spinal cord, i.e. receptors, nerves, motor endings, and ganglea

Neurons=main functional cell, Excitable (carry a nervous/electrical impulse), communicate with other neurons, form synapses, have a long life span, do not regenerate, very high metabolic demand.

Supporting cells=Not excitable, protect/control environment, do not form synapses, regenerate

Cell body= Soma, 1 nucleus, euchromatin, very active transcription, biosynthetic center, receptive site, contains nissl (only in neurons, RER + free ribosomes), and Neurofibrils (collections of neurofilaments = intermediate filament of neurons)

dendrites= Many, branched, Receptive sites, info travels toward cell body, never myelinated, have nissl and golgi

axon= Carrys impulse from cell body, only 1 per neuron, axon terminal, transfers synaptic vessicles from cell body to axon terminal, has many microtubules, neurofilaments, actin, may be myelinated, consistant diameter, no nissl and no golgi=no synthesis

Axosomatic = connection between axon and cell body

Axodendritic = connection between dendrite and axon, the most common

Structure= number of processe

 and

function= direction of impulse relative to CNS

1. Multipolar=more than 2 processes,1 axon + many dendrites, most common, all motor=

2. Bipolar=2 processes, 1 axon, 1 dendrite, only in special senses

1. Sensory=afferent, impulse towards CNS

2. Motor (efferent) impulseaway from CNS

3. Interneuron= housed in CNS, 99.9% of all neurons

1. Astrocyte= most abundant, extend between neurons and capillaries, nourish neurons, maintain environment, take up radical neuotransmitters

2. Microglia=least abundant, macrophage of CNS

3. Ependymal Cells= line central hollow portion of CNS, ventricles of brin, central canal of spinal chord, cilia aid in circulation of spinal fluid

4.  Oligodendrocytes= former of myelin sheath in axons

Schwann cells and Satellite cells, have no processes

Satellite protects cell bodies

Schwann cell associated with every axon in PNS, form myelin sheath of some axons

Visceral = all structures in visceral body cavity, cardiac and smooth muscle, glands

Somatic = structures outside the ventral body cavity, skin, skeletal muscle, bone

General = wide spread distribution

special = limited distribution

Dorsal =?

Ventral = ?

Sensory

Motor

1. involved in sensory and motor innervation of the entire body inferior to the head. (via spinal
nerves)

2. provides 2-way conduction pathway for signals between the body and brain.

3. major reflex center

Bone - spine

Meninges = spinal dural sheath

Cerebral Spinal Fluid

Free nerve endings of sensory neurons

Merkel discs (modified free nerve ending)

hair follicle receptors (modified free nerve ending)

Meissner's corpuscles

Pacinian corpuscles

ruffini endings

muscle spindles

Golgi tendon organs

joint kinesthetic receptors

Free nerve endings of sensory neurons

and

pacinian corpuscles

Free nerve endings of sensory neurons

and

Joint kinesthetic receptors

31 pairs (8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, 1 cocygeal) which form a network (plexus) which are the:

Cervical plexus (C1-C4)

Brachial Plexus (C5-C8+T1)

Lumbar plexus (L1-L4)

Sacral Plexus (L4-S4)

  A plexus is formed by ventral rami.

Monosynaptic= sensory neuron goes to motor neuron and reaction occurs

Polysynaptic reflex= sensory neuron goes to interneuron goes to motor neuron, and reaction occurs

Somatic= innervations of all skeletal muscle and is voluntary, 1 motor neuron whose body is in the ventral horn, and whose axon is heavily myelinated.

Visceral= innervations of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands; is equivalent to the ANS (autonomic nervous system). 2 motor neurons, first’s axon (preganglionic) is lightly myelinated, then goes to a ganglionic neuron whose axon (postganglionic) is unmyelinated.

Stellate ganglion= fusion of inferior cervical and T1 paraverterbral ganglion

Sympathetic trunk ganglia= Cervical-pelvic paired paravertebral ganglia

Celiac ganglion, superior mesenteric, and inferior mesenteric ganglion= prevertebral ganglion (unpaired), named for blood vessels they are next too and restricted to the abdominopelvic cavity

Ascending - carries sensory info from the sensory neurons to the brain

Descending - carries motor instructions from the brain to the spinal cord

Commissural - some fibers cross from 1 side of the cord to the other

1. Brain stem+midbrain+pons+medulla oblongta

2. Cerebellum

3. Diencephalan+thalamus+HypoT+EpiT

4. Cerebrum

VIII (vestibulocochlear –hearing and equilibrium)

IX (glossopharyngeal – innervates part of the tongue and pharynx)

X (vagus – innervates many visceral organs in the thorax and abdomen)

XI (accessory nerve – some muscles of the neck)

XII ( hypoglossal – tongue muscles)

1. smoothes and coordinates body movements that are ordered by other brain regions

2. helps maintain posture and equilibrium

3. recognize, use, and predict sequences of events that we experience or perceive

1. important in starting and stopping voluntary movements that are ordered and executed by the cortex.

2. regulate intensity of voluntary movements

3. cooperate with cerebral cortex in controlling movement