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| The formal vehicles through which policies are made and affairs of state are conducted. |
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| Member of the political community to whom certain rights and obligations are attached. |
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| The study of who gets what, when, and how--or how policy decisions are made. |
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| A form of government in which power is vested in hereditary kings and queens who govern in the interests of all. |
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| A form of government in which power resides in a leader who rules according to self-interest and without regard for individual rights and liberties. |
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| A form of government in which the right to participate is conditioned on the possession of wealth, social status, military position, or achievement. |
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| A system of government that gives power to the people, whether directly or through their elected representatives. |
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| The belief that people are free and equal by God-given right and that this in turn requires that all people give their consent to be governed; espoused by John Locke and influential in the writing of the Declaration of Independence. |
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| A system of government in which members of the polity meet to discuss all policy decisions and then agree to abide by majority rule. |
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| Indirect (representative) democracy |
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| A system of government that gives citizens the opportunity to vote for representatives who will work on their behalf. |
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| A government rooted in the consent of the governed; a representative or indirect democracy. |
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| Commonly shared attitudes, beliefs, and core values about how government should operate. |
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| A key characteristic of U.S. democracy. Initially meaning freedom from governmental interference, today it includes demands for freedom to engage in a variety of practices free from governmental discrimination. |
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| The principal that all citizens are equal in the political process; implied by the phrase "one person, one vote." |
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| The idea that governments must draw their powers from the consent of the governed. |
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| The central premise of direct democracy in which only policies that collectively garner the support of a majority of voters will be made into law. |
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| The notion that the ultimate authority in society rests with the people. |
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| A doctrine that society should be governed by certain ethical principles that are part of nature and, as such, can be understood by reason. |
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| Society created when citizens are allowed to organize and express their views publicly as they engage in an open debate about public policy. |
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| A coherent set of values and beliefs about the purpose and scope of government. |
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| One who favors a free market economy and no governmental interference in personal liberties. |
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| One thought to believe that a government is best that governs least and that big government can only infringe on individual, personal, and economic rights. |
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| One who believes that traditional moral teachings should be supported and furthered by the government. |
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| One considered to favor extensive governmental involvement in the economy and the provision of social services and to take an activist role in protecting the rights of women, the elderly, minorities, and the environment. |
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| An American ideal of a happy, successful life, which often includes wealth, a house, a better life for one's children, and, for some, the ability to grow up to be president. |
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| An economic theory designed to increase a nation's wealth through the development of commercial industry and a favorable balance of trade. |
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| Meeting of representatives of nine of the thirteen colonies held in New York City in 1765, during which representatives drafted a document to send to the king listing how their rights had been violated. |
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| Committees of Correspondence |
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| Organizations in each of the American colonies created to keep colonists abreast of developments with the British; served as powerful molders of public opinion against the British. |
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| First Continental Congress |
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| Meeting held in Philadelphia from September 5 to October 26, 1774, in which fifty-six delegates (from every colony except Georgia) adopted a resolution in opposition to the Coercive Acts. |
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| Second Continental Congress |
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| Meeting that convened in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, to make one last effort to avert conflict with England. It adopted the Declaration of Independence in 1776. |
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| Type of government where the national government derives its power from the states; a league of independent states. |
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| Declaration of Independence |
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| Document drafted by Thomas Jefferson in 1776 that proclaimed the right of the American colonies to separate from Great Britain. |
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| Articles of Confederation |
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| The compact among the thirteen original states that was the basis of their government. Written in 1776, the Articles were not ratified by all the states until 1781. |
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| A document establishing the structure, functions, and limitations of a government. |
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| The first general plan for the Constitution, proposed by James Madison and Edmund Randolph. Its key points were a bicameral legislature, an executive chosen by the legislature, and a judiciary also named by the legislature. |
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| A framework for the Constitution proposed by a group of small states; its key points were a one-house legislature with one vote for each state, the establishment of the acts of Congress as the "supreme law" of the land, and a supreme judiciary with limited power. |
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| A decision made during the Constitutional Convention to give each state the same number of representatives in the Senate regardless of size; representation in the House was determined by population. |
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| Agreement reached at the Constitutional Convention stipulating that each slave was to be counted as three-fifths of a person for purposes of determining population for representation in the U.S. House of Representatives. |
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| A way of dividing power among three branches of government in which members of the House of Representatives, members of the Senate, the president, and the federal courts are selected by and responsible to different constituencies. |
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| A governmental structure that gives each of the three branches of government some degree of oversight and control over the actions of the others. |
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| Plan of government created in the U.S. Constitution in which power is divided between and the state governments and in which independent states are bound together under one national government. |
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| Seventeen specific powers granted to Congress under Article I, section 8, of the U.S. Constitution; these powers include taxation, coinage of money, regulation of commerce, and the authority to provide for a national defense. |
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| Necessary and proper clause |
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| The final paragraph of Article I, section 8, of the U.S. Constitution, which gives Congress the authority to pass all laws "necessary and proper" to carry out the enumerated powers specified in the Constitution; also called the elastic clause. |
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| Powers derived from the enumerated powers and the necessary and proper clause. These powers are not stated specifically but are considered to be reasonably implied through the exercise of delegated powers. |
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| Portion of Article VI of the U.S. Constitution mandating that national law is supreme to (that is, supersedes) all other laws passed by the states or by any other subdivision of government. |
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| Those who favored a stronger national government and supported the proposed U.S. Constitution; later became the first U.S. political party. |
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| Those who favored strong state governments and a weak national government; opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. |
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| A series of eighty-five political papers written by John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison in support of ratification of the U.S. constitution. |
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| The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, which largely guarantee specific rights and liberties. |
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| System of government where the national government and state governments share powers, derive all authority from the people, and the powers of the national government are specified in a constitution. |
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| System of government where the local and regional governments derive all authority from a strong national government. |
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| The final part of the Bill of Rights that defines the basic principle of American federalism in stating: "The powers not delegated to the United States by Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. |
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| Reserve (or police) powers |
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| Powers reserved to the states by the Tenth Amendment that lie at the foundation of a state's right to legislate for the public health and welfare of its citizens. |
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| Authority possessed by both the state and national governments that may be exercised concurrently as long as that power is not exclusively within the scope of national power or in conflict with national law. |
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| A law declaring an act illegal without a judicial trial. |
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| Law passed after the fact, thereby making previously legal activity illegal and subject to current penalty; prohibited by the U.S. Constitution. |
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| Full faith and credit clause |
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| Section of Article IV of the Constitution that ensures judicial decrees and contracts made in one state will be binding and enforceable in any other state. |
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| Privileges and immunities clause |
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| Part of Article IV of the Constitution guaranteeing that the citizens of each state are afforded the same rights as citizens of all other states. |
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| Contracts between states that carry the force of law; generally now used as a tool to address multi-state policy concerns. |
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| McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) |
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| The Supreme Court upheld the power of the national government and denied the right of a state to tax the bank. The Court's broad interpretation of the necessary and proper clause paved the way for later rulings upholding expansive federal powers. |
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| The Supreme Court upheld broad congressional power to regulate interstate commerce. The Court's broad interpretation of the Constitution's commerce clause paved the way for later rulings upholding expansive federal powers. |
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| The belief that having separate and equally powerful levels of government is the best arrangement. |
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| Authorized Congress to enact a national income tax. |
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| Made senators directly elected by the people; removed their selection from state legislatures. |
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| The name given to the program of "Relief, Recovery, Reform" begun by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 to bring the Unites States out of the Great Depression. |
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| The relationship between the national and state governments that began with the New Deal. |
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| Grant for which Congress appropriates funds for a specific purpose. |
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| Federal/state relationship proposed by Regan administration during the 1980s; its hallmark is returning administrative powers to the state governments. |
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| Broad grant with few strings attached; given to states by the federal government for specified activities, such as secondary education or health services. |
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| National laws that direct states or local governments to comply with federal rules or regulations (such as clean air or water standards) but contain no federal funding to defray the cost of meeting these requirements. |
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| A concept derived from the Constitution's supremacy clause that allows the national government to override or preempt state or local actions in certain areas. |
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| The right of a state to be free from lawsuit unless it gives permission to the suit. Under the Eleventh Amendment, all states are considered sovereign. |
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| The personal guarantees and freedoms that the federal government cannot abridge by law, constitution, or judicial interpretation. |
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| The government-protected rights of individuals against arbitrary or discriminatory treatment. |
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| Part of the Bill of Rights that reads "The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people." |
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| Part of the Bill of Rights that reiterates powers not delegated to the national government are reserved to the states or to the people. |
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| Clause contained in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments. Over the years, it has been construed to guarantee to individuals a variety of rights ranging from economic liberty to criminal procedural rights to protection from arbitrary governmental action. |
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| Judicial interpretation of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments' due process clause that protects citizens from arbitrary or unjust laws. |
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| An interpretation of the Constitution that holds that the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment requires that state and local governments also guarantee those rights. |
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| A judicial doctrine whereby most but not all of the protections found in the Bill of Rights are made applicable to the states via the Fourteenth Amendment. |
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| Part of the Bill of Rights that imposes a number of restrictions on the federal government with respect to the civil liberties of the people, including freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition. |
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| The first clause in the First Amendment; it prohibits the national government from establishing a national religion. |
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| The second clause of the First Amendment; it prohibits the U.S. government from interfering with a citizen's right to practice his or her religion. Still, some forms of actual exercise of religion can be regulated. |
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| Constitutional doctrine that prevents the government from prohibiting speech or publication before the fact; generally held to be in violation of the First Amendment. |
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| A court order in which a judge requires authorities to prove that a prisoner is being held lawfully and that allows the prisoner to be freed if the judge is not persuaded by the government's case. Habeas corpus rights imply that prisoners have a right to know what charges are being made against them. |
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| Clear and present danger test |
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| Test articulated by the Supreme Court in Schenck v. U.S. (1919) to draw the line between protected and unprotected speech; the Court looks to see "whether the words used" could "create a clear and present danger that they will bring about substantive evils" that Congress seeks "to prevent." |
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| A test articulated by the Supreme Court in Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969) that holds that advocacy of illegal action is protected by the First Amendment unless imminent lawless action is intended and likely to occur. |
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| False written statements or written statements tending to call someone's reputation into disrepute. |
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| Untrue spoken statements that defame the character of a person. |
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| New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964) |
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| The Supreme Court concluded that "actual malice" must be proved to support a finding of libel against a public figure. |
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| Words that, "by their very utterance inflict injury or tend to incite an immediate breach of peace." Fighting words are not subject to the restrictions of the First Amendment. |
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| Procedural guarantees provided by the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Eighth Amendments for those accused of crimes. |
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| Part of the Bill of Rights that reads: "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probably cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized." |
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| Part of the Bill of Rights that imposes a number of restrictions on the federal government with respect to the rights of persons suspected of committing a crime. It provides for indictment by a grand jury and protection against self-incrimination, and prevents the national government from denying a person life, liberty, or property without the due process of law. It also prevents the national government from taking property without fair compensation. |
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| Miranda v. Arizona (1966) |
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| A landmark Supreme Court ruling that held the Fifth Amendment requires that individuals arrested for a crime must be advised of their right to remain silent and to have counsel present. |
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| Statements that must be made by the police informing a suspect of his or her constitutional rights protected by the Fifth Amendment, including the right to an attorney provided by the court if the suspect cannot afford one. |
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| Part of the Fifth Amendment that protects individuals from being tried twice for the same offense. |
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| Judicially created rule that prohibits police from using illegally seized evidence at trial. |
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| Part of the BIll of Rights that sets out the basic requirements of procedural due process for federal courts to follow in criminal trials. These include speedy and public trials, impartial juries, trials in the state where crime was committed, notice of the charges, the right to confront and obtain favorable witnesses, and the right to counsel. |
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| Part of the Bill of Rights that states: "Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted." |
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| The right to be let alone; a judicially created doctrine encompassing an individual's decision to use birth control or secure an abortion. |
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| The Supreme Court found that a woman's right to an abortion was protected by the right to privacy that could be implied from specific guarantees found in the Bill of Rights applied to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. |
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| Refers to the government-protected rights of individuals against arbitrary or discriminatory treatment by governments or individuals based on categories such as race, sex, national origin, age, religion, or sexual orientation. |
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| One of the three Civil war Amendments; specifically bans slavery in the United States. |
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| Laws denying most legal rights to newly freed slaves; passed by southern states following the Civil War. |
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| One of the three Civil War Amendments; guarantees equal protection and due process of the laws to all U.S. citizens. |
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| One of the three Civil War Amendments; specifically enfranchised newly freed male slaves. |
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| Civil Rights Cases (1883) |
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| Name attached to five cases brought under the Civil Rights Act of 1875. In 1883, the Supreme Court decided that discrimination in a variety of public accommodations, including theaters, hotels, and railroads, could not be prohibited by the act because such discrimination was private discrimination and not state discrimination. |
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| A tax levied in many southern states and localities that had to be paid before an eligible voter could cast a ballot. |
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| Voting qualification provision in many southern states that allowed only those whose grandfathers had voted before Reconstruction to vote unless they passed a wealth or literacy test. |
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| Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) |
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| Plessy challenged a Louisiana statute requiring that railroads provide separate accommodations for blacks and whites. The Court found that separate but equal accommodations did not violate the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. |
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| The drive for voting rights for women that took place in the United States from 1890 to 1920. |
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| Amendment to the Constitution that guaranteed women the right to vote. |
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| Brown v. Board of Education (1954) |
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| U.S. Supreme Court decision holding that school segregation is inherently unconstitutional because it violates the Fourteenth Amendment's guarantee of equal protection; marked the end of legal segregation in the United States. |
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| Section of the Fourteenth Amendment that guarantees that all citizens receive "equal protection of the laws." |
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| Legislation passed by Congress to outlaw segregation in public facilities and racial discrimination (among other types of decision-making) in employment, education, and voting; created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. |
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| Equal Employment Opportunity Commission |
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| Federal agency created to enforce the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which forbids discrimination on the basis of race, creed, national origin, religion, or sex in hiring, promotion, or firing. |
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| Proposed amendment that would bar discrimination against women by federal or state governments. |
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| Category or class, such as race, that triggers the highest standard or scrutiny from the Supreme Court. |
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| A heightened standard of review used by the Supreme Court to determine the constitutional validity of a challenged practice. |
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| Provision of the Educational Amendments of 1972 that bars educational institutions receiving federal funds from discriminating against female students. |
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| Policies designed to give special attention or compensatory treatment to members of a previously disadvantaged group. |
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