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AGRY 290 Test 2
N/a
179
Environmental Studies
Undergraduate 4
12/01/2009

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Term
earthquakes represent a buildup of stress in the ____ (layer of earth)
Definition
lithosphere
Term
planar breaks in rock along which there is displacement of one side relative to the other
Definition
faults
Term
when movement along faults occurs gradually and smoothly -- rarely causes damage
Definition
creep or aseismic slip
Term
earthquake (seismic slip)
Definition
when the stress of the earth moving exceeds the rupture strength of the rock and a sudden movement occurs
Term
when rocks snap back to their previous dimensions after sudden displacement (earthquake)
Definition
elastic rebound
Term
point on a fault at which the first movement or break occurs during an earthquake
Definition
focus or hypocenter
Term
deep-focus earthquakes have focal depths over __km
Definition
100
Term
the point on the earth's surface directly above the focus
Definition
epicenter
Term
deep-focus earthquakes are concentrated in ___ zones. why?
Definition
subduction - because the deeper earth is more elastic and fluid
Term
when an earthquake occurs, it releases the stored up energy in ____
Definition
seismic waves
Term
P and S waves are ___ waves
Definition
body
Term
__ waves are compression waves
Definition
P
Term
__ waves are shear waves, involving side to side motion
Definition
S
Term
____ waves are similar to surface waves on water because they cause rocks and soil to be displaced so that the ground ripples
Definition
seismic surface waves
Term
most damage from earthquakes is caused by ___ waves
Definition
surface
Term
seismographs detect the epicenter using __ waves
Definition
body
Term
P waves are known as ___ waves and S as ___ waves why?
Definition
primary, secondary - bc the P wave arrives before the S
Term
the amount of ground motion is related to the ___ of the earthquake
Definition
magnitude
Term
___ is a better measurement of relative energy release of an earthquake bc it takes into account the area of the break on the surface, the displacement along the fault, and the strenght of the rock.
Definition
moment magnitude (Mw)
Term
measure of an earthquake's effects on humans and surface structure
Definition
intensity
Term
most commonly used intensity scale in the US
Definition
modified Mercalli intensity scale - 1-12 intensities
Term
seismic sea waves caused by an undersea or near-shore earthquake
Definition
tsunami
Term
dormant, quiescent sections of otherwise active fault zones
Definition
seismic gaps
Term
implications of seismic gaps
Definition
represent "locked" sections of faults along which normal slipping is prevented... often represent spots of future, serious earthquakes
Term
things that happen or rock properties that change prior to an earthquake
Definition
precursor phenomena
Term
because earthquake predicting is not a refined science yet, the US tends to rely more on ____
Definition
earthquake forecasting
Term
the earthquake cycle
Definition
the idea that major earthquakes occur at more or less regular intervals and follow a cycle along a fault segment that includes a period of stress buildup, sudden fault rupture in a major earthquake, a period of aftershocks, then another extended period of stress buildup
Term
magma is typically generated at what 3 plate-tectonic settings?
Definition
at divergent plate boundaries (ocean ridges and continental rift zones), over subduction zones, at 'hot spots'
Term
isolated areas of volcanic activity that are not associated with current plate boundaries
Definition
hot spots
Term
magma that is rich in iron and magnesium is referred to as ___. silica-rich magma is referred to as ___.
Definition
mafic, felsic
Term
__ forms new sea floor and is caused
Definition
basalt
Term
what kind of magma is more explosive?
Definition
silica-rich (felsic) because it tends to trap gases -- whereas mafic tends to let gases flow through
Term
The Pacific "ring of fire" is so seismically/volcanically active because ..?
Definition
it is a ring of subduction zones
Term
Kilimanjaro is associated with ____ zones
Definition
continental rift
Term
volcanic rock is ___ rock formed where?
Definition
igneous rock formed at or near the earth's surface
Term
most volcanic rock is created by ____.
Definition
seafloor spreading ridges
Term
the eruption of magma out of a crack in the lithosphere, rather than from a single pipe or vent... happens at spreading ridges
Definition
fissure eruption
Term
mafic basaltic lavas build volcanoes that are flat and low in relation to their diameter... this is called
Definition
shield volcanoes
Term
the hawaiian volcanoes are ___ volcanoes
Definition
shield
Term
rhyolitic and andesitic lavas tend to build __ ]because of their thick, viscous nature. example of one of these?
Definition
volcanic domes - mt. st. helens
Term
bits of violently erupted volcanic material
Definition
pyroclastics
Term
when pyroclastics fall close to the place where they fell near the mouth of the volcano, these form
Definition
cinder cones
Term
volcanic "bombs"
Definition
blobs of liquid lava that are thrown from a volcano during an eruption
Term
volcanoes that erupt some pyroclastics, then some lava, then more pyroclastics, and so on are called ____ because they are built up of varying layers.
Definition
composite volcanoes or stratovolcanoes
Term
the cascade range in the western US, including my. st. helens are ___ volcanoes
Definition
composite
Term
How did the Icelandic island of Heimaey fight back against it's volcanic eruption?
Definition
they ran metal pipes with cool water in front of the lava flow so that the lava cooled and solidified and thus stopped further flow
Term
volcanic "mud" formed by the combination of volcanic ash with water
Definition
lahar
Term
denser-than-air mixture of hot gases and fine ash forms a hot ____, AKA ____.
Definition
pyroclastic flow - nuees ardentes
Term
when large quantities of water (often seawater on volcanic islands) seep down into the rock and are heated to steam by the hot magma, and then burst forth out of the volcano
Definition
phreatic eruptions
Term
most famous phreatic explosion
Definition
Krakatoa in Indonesia (1883)
Term
3 categories of volcanoes based on their activity
Definition
active, dormant, or extinct
Term
an enlarged volcanic summit crater, which may be formed by either an explosion enlarging an existing crater or by collapse of a volcano after a magma chamber within has emptied
Definition
caldera
Term
biofuels are primarily made from ____
Definition
corn
Term
pros of ethanol use
Definition
lessens dependence on oil, good for the economy (creates jobs), renewable resource, cleaner burning, disaggregated (not as many middlemen)
Term
cons of ethanol use
Definition
instability ("bad years" for corn), land pressure (soil erosion, deforestation), water needs, price, crop displacement (everyone can't grow corn), transformational costs (turning corn into ethanol), more ethanol per mile needed than gas
Term
2 other ways to make ehtanol (than corn)
Definition
algae, sugar cane, cellulosic material ("throw away" parts of plants)
Term
the ultimate source of energy is?
Definition
the sun
Term
7 types of "raw energy"
Definition
wind, biofuel, hydropower, fossil fuels, geothermal power, tidal power, solar power
Term
4 types of consumed energy
Definition
electricity, heat, gas, oil
Term
4 types of used energy
Definition
plastic from petroleum, light, transportation, work
Term
___ is the country that uses the most energy. ____ is the country that uses the most energy per capita.
Definition
US, United Arab Emerates
Term
the total oil in the world is about ____ barrels. The total recoverable oil is about ____ barrels. The proven oil is about ____ barrels. Already consumed ___ barrels.
Definition
4 trillion, 2 trillion, 1.3 trillion, 0.8 trillion
Term
we have about ___ years left of oil at this point and this consumption
Definition
40
Term
why is natural gas being favored over oil and coal? how much of our total energy is natural gas?
Definition
it releases less CO2 - 25%
Term
___ is made up of large accumulations of terrestrial plant material (lignin) buried into the waterlogged soil. The organic remains then gradually turn into ___, porous brown organic material, which contains about __% carbon
Definition
coal ... peat .. 50%
Term
peat, lignite, bituminous, and anthracite coal have increasing/decreasing carbon contents in that order
Definition
increasing (peat is about 50%, anthracite about 90%)
Term
What country has the largest coal reserves?
Definition
US
Term
What area has the largest oil reserves?
Definition
middle east
Term
the fuel in oil shale is ____, which is organic materials in various stages of degradation. How is oil shale produced?
Definition
kerogen -- must first be crushed then heated to distill out the hydrocarbons, which can then be refined to crude oil
Term
___ are sedimentary rock containing a very thick, semi-solid, tar-like petroleum.
Definition
tar sands
Term
the oil reserves in the ANWR give us about how much oil in the US? (Barrels and time)
Definition
3.2 Billion barrels -- 1 year
Term
ways to conserve energy
Definition
good lightbulbs, insulation, eliminating "standby" of electronics, transportation efficiency, etc
Term
solar energy, in general, is about __% efficient
Definition
15
Term
types of biomass
Definition
wood, compressed organics, peat, ethanol, biofuel
Term
how is wind power proportional to velocity?
Definition
power is the cube of velocity (double wind speed, 8x as much power)
Term
UV_ makes vitamin D. UV_ is considered the most damaging. UV_ is entirely absorbed before it reaches earth.
Definition
A, B, C
Term
strength of UV radiation is directly related to ____.
Definition
temperature
Term
Earth's average albedo
Definition
30
Term
climate change is due to shifting of energy into its ___ expression and thereby changing the _____ balance.
Definition
temperature, thermodynamic
Term
in general, it gets colder as we move further into the atmosphere away from the earth's surface with the exception of the _____. this is becaus?
Definition
thermosphere - because it absorbs UVC
Term
deserts are created at about 30 degrees N&S latitudes due to _____
Definition
Hadley cells - trap air low against the earth
Term
how does the ITCZ create a positive feedback system?
Definition
Itertropical Convergence Zone - low pressure heats up air and causes it to expand and rise, this creates a vacuum that pulls air in from the side and back out the top
Term
evaporation releases/uses energy. condensation releases/uses energy.
Definition
uses, creates
Term
heat associated with phase change of water
Definition
latent heat
Term
energy for wind comes from?
Definition
sun
Term
why do winds at beaches change direction during the day from night?
Definition
the water stays about the same temp and the temp of the land changes -- during the day, the land is warmer and wind blows out to the ocean, reverse at night
Term
"merry go round effect" caused by the coriolis effect
Definition
like trying to throw a ball to someone standing in the middle of a merry go round -- the middle (equator) goes faster than the outside (higher latitudes)
Term
the coriolis effect makes the northern hemisphere bend left/right
Definition
right
Term
key points about the coriolis effect
Definition
wind is created by pressure differences, there is a difference in ground speed at different latitudes
Term
Winter: the ITCZ bends over __ and lags over ___.
Definition
land, water
Term
in a low/high pressure system, heating at the surface causes water to heat and rise
Definition
low
Term
air tends to flow from areas of ___ pressure to areas of ___ pressure
Definition
high to low
Term
what creates the monsoons in india in july?
Definition
ITCZ is over india but the large mountain range forces air upward which creates huge thunderstorms
Term
preindustrial CO2 concentration and current
Definition
preindustrial: 280, now: 390ppm
Term
___ is the essence of climate change. why?
Definition
resonance due to the frequency of thermal energy in the air that resonates with CO2 and transfers energy to it
Term
CO2 concentrations increase with ____
Definition
temperature
Term
Things that cause global cooling
Definition
biomass burning, sulfate aerosols, aircraft contrails, stratospheric ozone
Term
a slow moving river that goes through all oceans and brings warm salty water from the tropics to the extratropics -- makes ireland warmer than it should be
Definition
thermohaline (ex: gulf stream)
Term
main reason for current rising sea levels
Definition
thermal expansion of water
Term
embodied energy/carbon
Definition
energy is contained in al the stuff we use - paper, food, etc - it takes energy to cut down a tree and make it into paper and then ship it to the store
Term
___ tons of carbon emissions per year
Definition
9 billion
Term
Kyoto Protocol
Definition
countries agreed to reduce emissions on average 5% below their 1990 level by 2010
Term
framework convention on climate change
Definition
defined the problem of GHG in the atmosphere - almost every country signed it, but not everyone did something about it. established differential responsibility. 1994
Term
mid-oceanic ridge formed by rocks separating the ocean - one side is america, the other is europe
Definition
iceland ridge
Term
subduction zone
Definition
oceanic plate slides under land and melts then bubbles up and is released via volcanoes -- created san andreas fault
Term
most fatal earthquakes are a combination of what 3 things?
Definition
strength of earthquake, number of people in the area, quality of structures in the area
Term
tidal bore
Definition
miniature tsunami
Term
layers of the earth - out to in
Definition
crust, upper mantle, asthenosphere, outer core, inner core
Term
the lithosphere is made up of what layers?
Definition
uppermost mantle and crust
Term
there are how many major plates in the earth?
Definition
8
Term
a subduction zone "ate" the mid-ocean ridge in the pacific NW US and resulted in the strike slip san andreas fault
Definition
Term
Sumatran tsunami in 2004
Definition
earthquake in ocean 60 mi offshore set off tsunami for over 10 hours and struck 12 countries, 150,000 killed
Term
characteristics of earthquakes that generate tsunamis
Definition
epicenter underneath or near the ocean, fault that causes vertical movement of the sea floor over a large area, magnitude over 7.5 and focus under 70km
Term
3 general appearances of a tsunami wave
Definition
fast-rising tide, cresting wave, step=like change in water level that advances rapidly
Term
how does global warming effect arctic animal populations
Definition
ice sheets melt, krill that eat algae off them die, whales and penguins that eat krill die also
Term
___ circulate air in the troposphere to constantly redistribute air around the world
Definition
convection currents
Term
4 layers of the atmosphere (ground up)
Definition
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere
Term
insolation
Definition
solar radiation
Term
surfaces that reflect light have low/high albedo
Definition
high
Term
energy that is released by the earth to the atmosphere
Definition
terrestrial energy
Term
the greenhouse effect is created by ___ energy
Definition
terrestrial -- lets light through but traps heat
Term
large convection currents that distribute heat globally
Definition
hadley cells
Term
high/low pressure = rising air
Definition
low
Term
areas of frequent low/high pressure tend to get the most rain
Definition
low
Term
hurricane-force winds at the top of the troposphere that circle the earth
Definition
jet streams
Term
regular seasonal winds and rain
Definition
monsoons
Term
wherever the sun shines most/least brightly is where the strongest convection currents, rainfall, and storms are
Definition
most
Term
cold front
Definition
cold air displaces warmer air and moves under it - generates strong convection currents and thus strong storms
Term
which is caused by the coriolis effect: hurricanes or tornadoes?
Definition
hurricanes
Term
how do we get knowledge about climate patterns throughout history
Definition
glacial ice cores
Term
milkanovitch cycles
Definition
periodic changes in the earths orbit and tilt - cause dramatic climate swings
Term
___ happens every 3-5 years when ocean temperatures rise. ___ happens in the intervening years
Definition
el nino, la nina
Term
ENSO
Definition
el nino southern oscillation - overall cycle of el nino and la nina
Term
effect of el nino in US
Definition
dryer areas tend to get more rain, wetter areas are dryer
Term
5 greenhouse gases
Definition
CO2, CH4, CFCs, N2O and SF6
Term
global warming pros
Definition
more CO2 helps plants fluorish, warmer temps = longer growing seasons, stronger storms = less drought
Term
global warming cons
Definition
increase in sea level (more floods), stronger storms/hurricanes, increase in infectious disease due to more bugs, release of methane hydrate from melting permafrost
Term
Carbon enrichment studies - FACE
Definition
free air carbon enrichment - plants do better with more carbon
Term
reducing output of GHGs
Definition
natural gas instead of coal, promote energy efficiency, raise gas taxes, nuclear power, wind energy
Term
carbon management strategies
Definition
plant trees, phytoplankton, crop rotation, collect methane for energy, reduce soot emissions, pump CO2 into deep oceans
Term
energy sources that formed from the remains of once-living organisms
Definition
fossil fuels
Term
5 fossil fuels
Definition
oil, natural gas, coal, oil shale, tar sand
Term
most common natural gas
Definition
methane
Term
fossil fuels take at least ___ years to form and are thus nonrenewable
Definition
2 million
Term
"proven resources"
Definition
accumulations of fossil fuels that can be gotten with current technology
Term
fossil fuels are really only found in land that is made up of ___ rock
Definition
sedimentary
Term
primary oil recovery
Definition
recovery using no technology other than drilling
Term
secondary oil recovery
Definition
pumping in water to fill pore spaces and buoy up the oil by increasing pressure
Term
between primary and secondary recovery, we are able to recover about how much of the oil in a given well?
Definition
1/3
Term
alternatives natural gas sources
Definition
coal-bed methane (methane gas produced by coal formation), geopressurized zones (deep in the earth, increased temp and pressure change oil to gas that is absorbed into the underground water), methane hydrates (crystalline solids of gas and water molecules found in the arctic and oceans)
Term
pattern of US energy consumption
Definition
flattened in 70s and 80s, rose in 90s, flattening again
Term
___ is an energy source formed from the remains of land plants
Definition
coal
Term
hard/soft coal has highest carbon content and is thus most desirable as fuel
Definition
hard
Term
environmental impact of coal - produces ___ when burned
Definition
CO2 -- also releases sulfur which can cause acid rain
Term
what is the most commonly used ion for fission
Definition
u-235
Term
most uranium is found in ___ rock
Definition
sedimentary
Term
a material that slows neutrons running through the core of a nuclear reactor enough that a chain reaction can be sustained
Definition
moderator -- US is water, Chernobyl was graphite
Term
___ is the process by which the sun makes energy
Definition
fusion
Term
gasohol and it's limitations
Definition
90% gas, 10% alcohol -- normal cars can't run on greater than 10% alcohol
Term
sulfur dioxide is primarily emitted by
Definition
fossil fuel combustion
Term
a temperature inversion can do what 3 things
Definition
decrease vertical mixing, increase photochemical smog, lessen visibility
Term
unpolluted air has a pH of about
Definition
5.6
Term
the US clean air act was first passed in
Definition
1963
Term
3 places CFCs are used
Definition
aerosols, catalytic converters, rubber production
Term
pollutants that do not go through a smokestack
Definition
fugitive emissions
Term
which criteria pollutant has not declined since 1970
Definition
NOx
Term
why are the world's deserts located at 30 degrees N&S latitudes?
Definition
large scale sinking air occurs in these regions
Term
nitrogen and oxygen make up whta percent of background air in the atmosphere?
Definition
99
Term
what is primarily responsible for the current and projected rise in global mean temperature?
Definition
human-produced gases
Term
a surface with high albedo will do which: appear dark, reflect energy, destory ozone
Definition
reflect energy
Term
what direction does the wind curve in the Southern hemi? and why?
Definition
left - coriolis effect
Term
largest overall contribution to golbal warming is
Definition
CO2
Term
3 processes that form clouds
Definition
heating at the planet's surface, condensation of water vapor, expansion of rising air
Term
how many modes of variation are present in milankovitch cycles?
Definition
3
Term
OPEC stands for
Definition
organization of petroleum-exporting countries
Term
3 types of fossil fuels
Definition
petroleum, natural gas, coal
Term
the largest proven reserves of natural gas are in
Definition
russia
Term
___ solar heating typically requires few or no moving parts, uses direct sunlight, combines sunlight with a storage medium
Definition
passive
Term
photovoltaic solar energy uses ___ radiation to generate ____.
Definition
shortwave radiation to generate electrical current
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