mass communication with identified sponsor that pays for space and time

persuavive in intent

types of human inquiry

controlled empirism-you learn about reality through observing it

•  
  • Empiricism-A pursuit of knowledge purely through experience, especially by means of observation and sometimes by experimentation

Theory-driven v. Exploratory (types of research)

Scientific Method- a method of investigation involving observation and theory to test scientific hypotheses

o   Theory-driven Research- start with theory then carry out research by support or lack of support for the theory

o   Exploratory Research-Taking observations without being guided by theory, but having an initial idea of what theories are already out there

Theory --> Hypothesis --> Observations --> Generalization

• don’t necessarily have to start with theory, you can start at any point.

Judging-result of experience with particular problem

Tradition/Culture-intergenerational way of knowing. The things that everybody "knows"

Authority-results from what someone with more power over us tells us is true and we accept as true

Intuition-looking inward; introspective contemplation 

Empiricism-knowing by observing (measurment technique)/ research is a special type of empricism

Careful, accurate, valid, observation.

Random selection helps makes observations in a more controlled way. 

• moves from the particular to the general, from a set of specific observations to the discovery of a pattern that represents some degree of order amoung all the given events 
• the process of making inferences based upon observed patterns, or simple repitition. Often used in reference to predictions about what will happen or does happen, based upon what has happned. 

Innaccurate observations 

Selective observations

Overgeneralization

Illogical resasoning

"made-up" Information

Mystification of Residuals 

Error in human inquiry 

Careless, limits of information processing

unmotivated, not seeing all, simple error/mistakes

Error in human inquiry

step-by-step thinking (bad "deductive Reasoning")

EX.-Gambler's fallacy-a consistent run of either good or bad luck is presumed to foreshawdow its opposite

o   If we see an exception to the rule, then the rule is very likely false. However the term “prove” has changed over time- what it’s really saying is: Does the exception “test” the rule?

o   i.e. AT&T’s headline promoting long-distance calling “If you call ahead, then you’ll be welcomed”- if you state an “if-when” statement then it must work both ways. In this case if you turn the statement around it becomes a threat- “If you don’t call ahead, then you won’t be welcomed.” Bad campaign.

Error in Human Inquiry 

Motivated, may result from first error or past learning/biases. Selective perception 

Error in human inquiry

·         emphasis on the “over”- we do generalize in research (called “Inductive Reasoning”-induction)

o   Reaching generalizations with too few observations

Error in Human Inquiry

 (post hoc reasoning) - when we make an observation that is inconsistent with our theory. Making up information and then claiming it’s the truth- post hoc reasoning. We stopped to soon in the research process, we change our perception of reality without testing our hypothesis.

o   i.e. if your at a party and given 10 complements about your dress, and then given 1 criticism- you’re more likely to remember that one criticism than the 10 complements.

o   i.e. buy 7up because it doesn’t have artificial colors or flavors! 

Error in Human Inquiry

· (accepting “unknowables”)- Don’t ever think that there’s a part of science that you can’t study. It’s an error to think that something just cant be studied. Everything can be studied! You can study anything that exists.

o   i.e. there are certain enzymes that are high when we’re in love and very low when we’re out of love. That’s why on V-day, couples will give eachother chocolates & when you have a bad break up- you crave chocolate.

• Reason from the general to the particular (or from cause to effect)
• Also called Deductive Logic. An argument is deductive when its conclusion is a logical consequence of the premises. They are valid or invalid, never true or false

describes an organization who pays for research that has invested interests in data

Done by media organizations that has vested interests in results (would want to see results favor their position)

A characteristic of interest that can take in different values (attributes).

Nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio

EX of test question:Q-for the variable lawyer, an attribute of that variable is a profession, True or false?- FALSE, bc it can vary within the category or profession. 

Another example: Variable=gender; Attributes= males &female

when the attributes are categorical, allows you to create a classification system based upon the attributes of the variable. 

Were just naming the attributes i.e country of residence-all 159 countries would be an attribute

Ranking the attributes or putting them in an order

What's the highest or most frequent response?

Interval Variable

the attributes as they relate to each other. You can talk about meaningful differences, average levels (means, standard dev.)

Equal Differences. Calculate average or means

EX-1-5 scale of how much you like snikers, if you code the values implicitly then there is an equal distance bt the ranks. Conceptually you're trying to equalize the difference between the attributes

EX-A ruler

highest level of measurment. Adds the absolute zero value. We can compare mulitples-as long as you can agree on a certain absolute zero.

Distances, heights, ages

ie.- snickers candy bar- is it possible to like even more than 5 or hate it even more than 0?

In the next 2 weeks on a scale of 1-100, how likely is it that you will buy a snickers?

Within large agencies. Intended to increase knowledge (all knowledge is valuable)

used for academic purposes, not professional 

Could be evaluated by ad firm to see if it has value

-Carried out for the purpose of making decisions better.

-Does the value for the research outweigh the costs?

-Is the benefit (in terms of $ value) greater than how much the research project costs?

Value of information is much more relevant 

• study the quality of people are things through observation that does not involve numbers-usually words or actions
• Essay type questions-open ended to gain deep understanding of people you do observe
• 8-12 participants in group

 questions or areas of inquiry have fixed number of answer categories.

Structured answer categories.

Numerical codes to answers given. 

Pools drawn from large number of people

Results scored numerically

inquire into the nature of reality, dont ask questions

has no biases or invested interests.

Results may not be what was hypothesized or desired but still are reported

• Scientific method-doing science
• start with theory then carry out research by support or lack of support for theory
• general conceptualization of what reality is like/causal influences

• Scientific method-doing science 
• taking observations, asking questions, explore the nature of reality with guided theory
• go out in reality and formulate hypothesis

• Cause-effect research, relationship between stimulus and response.
• Researcher intervening into research process.
• When Some phenomenon is part of another phenomenon
• There are different approaches to determining causality (x is a cause of y, meaningfully associated with each other.
• Independent and dependent variables 
• more theory based

• typically a survey monitoring the nature of reality without influencing it. 
• Research that does not get a biased response
• Starts with observations then generallizations-->theory--> hypothesis

1. The Positivists (Dominant) Paradigm
2. The Systems Paradigm
3. Interpretative Paradigm
4. The Critical (or Cultural) Paradigm

• System researchers are interested in studying how systems function.
• organized complex behavior systems (a corporation=organized behavior system)
• Interdependent components: interactive effects and syngery(the whole is greater than its parts) EX- negative synergy: when brands position doesn't fit with the components of the promotion 
• Goals of a system: survival and growth/ runs implicitly
• Dynamic Equilibrium- when everything works together in a productive way ( a pond where everything works together for survival)
• Often use quantitative data but study complex relationships
• Ideographic Theory (case studies)- the more complete the description of reality the more you understand the system

• interested in understanding participant experiences from the participants POV
• Tends to use qualitative data trying to look for meaning in our customs and attitudes
• The study of Meanings of our Behaviors, Customs, Attitudes. EX- Prunes v. Plums Associations- there is an underlying negative meaning towards prunes-"they are a laxative, they're old and ugly." If we were to call them a plum, then that would eliminate the negative connotations. 
• Attempt to understand the "rules" that guide our communication acts
• "local Knowledge Theory"- meaning in context/ whats true in one context may not be true in another. 
• "Davy Crockett Rule"- take a step, evaluate the success of it, take another guided by the results of the previous step.