Define how a community of scholars reaches a

"Sense of Understanding"?

When causal mechanisms

that link changes in one or more concepts (independent variables)

with changes in other concepts

(dependent variables)

have been fully described.

What happens in

"controlling events"?

Variables are changed

so that other variables are affected

Reynolds: A set of abstract statements about reality, i.e.

"Abstract statements that are considered part of scientific knowledge in either the set-of-laws, the axiomatic, or the causal process forms."

• Stories about how reality works—they are abstract, causal and falsifiable
• the biproduct of induction and intuition."
• Abstract formulations of concepts and statements that are vague, yet prescriptive comprised of a set of well-supported empirical generalization or laws OR an interrelated set of definitions, axioms or propositions OR untested hypotheses or ideas.

1. Individual scientists become MORE CONFIDENT... or
2. A GREATER NUMBER of scientists...
   believe the idea is useful for the GOALS of science

1. Abstractness (independent of time and space)
2. Intersubjectivity (agreement about meaning among relevant scientists)
3. Empirical relevance (comparing some aspect of a scientific statement with empirical research)

1. New conceptualization, orientation, or world view
2. New research strategy or methodology for gathering evidence
3. New problems suggested for the solution
4. Explains phenomena previous paradigms failed to

• BIG stories, orientation, or worldview, e.g. evolution
• "Normal science" through set-by-step scientfic process that could result in a shift in orientation
• More stable than theories
• Offers a unique description or emphasis of existing phenomena 
• New research questions (but not methodology)
• New conceptualizations may explain events previously unexplained 

A change in detail emphasis that

does not change the basic conceptualization

1. Primitive and Derived terms
2. Dictionary and Real definitions

• A term whose meaning can be grasped without having to define that term using other terms
• Original terms that are not "defined" other than by shared impressions/experiences
• Terms that offer efficient, succinct descriptions
• Example: colors, sounds, attitudes, some relationships between individuals

• Derrived definitions and terms made from/based on primitive terms
• A set of primitive words and symbols that further describes a concept

1. The description of how each concept will be measured OR 

2. Definitions that describe a set of procedures and activities an observer should perform to receive sensory impressions that indicate degree of existence of a theoretical concept OR
3. Special definitions invented to provide instruction for determining existence of a theoretical concept in a concrete setting

Examples:

1. "The greater the years of formal schooling, the greater the total household income before taxes in 2007."
2. "It will be difficult to study 'negative book reviews' if you cannot operationalize 'negative' and 'review' ".

1. Nominal (labeled in any way)
2. Ordinal (quantified in rank by some characteristic)
3. Interval (Ranked with differences between the states)
4. Ratio (must have numbers on an interval scale, i.e. "0")

No!

"An approximate answer to an important question is more useful than a precise/quantified answer to a trivial question."

1. Existence
2. Relational

• Statements that state a concept exists, e.g. the object is..., or 
• describe a relationship that exists, e.g. each individual contacts others each week.
• Concepts in a statement are identified as right or wrong.

Statements that describe the relationship between 2 (or more if split into separate expresssions or restricting the domain) concepts—either causal, association, deterministic, probabilistic.

Example: the greater the formal education, the greater the income.

1. Laws ("absolute" truths) 
2. Axioms (basic set of statements, each independent of the others) 
3. Propositions (statements derived from axioms) 
4. Hypothesis (statement selected for comparison against data collected in a concrete situation) 
5. Empirical generalizations (summary of patterns in empirical research)

• A basic or general set of independent statements accepted without proof as the basis for logically deducing other statements (theorems).

1. Set of Laws 
2. Axiomatic 
3. Causal Process 

• Expresses statement relationships as a set of well/highly supported laws (usually causal) or empirical generalizations, i.e. things we feel very certain about
• Part of scientific knowledge directly supported by empirical research

• Statement relationships are a set of interrelated propositions and definitions derived from axioms* (i.e., things we feel certain about) used logically to derive a theorem
• Set of definitions > Consistent set of independent existence statements that describe situations in which the theory can be applied or relational statements (axioms or propositions) used in a logical system

*An axiom is a general statement accepted without proof as the basis for logically deducing other statements (theorems).

• A set of descriptions of causal processes, telling us how things work
• An interrelated set of definitions and statements that describe a causal process or mechanism with variables, i.e.
• An interrelated set of definitions, concepts (primitive and derived terms), and operational definitions +
• A set of existence statements in which one or more of the causal processes occurs +
• A set of causal statements with deterministic or probabilistic relations that describe processes or mechanisms that ID variables

• PREFERRED over set of laws
• Provides a "sense of understanding" 
• Easier to describe new paradigms 
• Allows for more efficient research 
• Offers more concise and interrelated organization of scientific knowledge

How is knowledge demonstrated as a solution to a practical problem?

There is no clear answer.

Some intended for simulation may later be causal, and so on.

How do researhers resolve

Abstract Statements and Concerete Research? 

By conducting empirical research so that

actual (concrete) settings affecting a scientist's confidence in the usefulness of the abstract statement can provide prediction and explanation

1. Descriptive statistical INFERENCE—describing the characteristic of an event 
2. Statistical DECISION—deciding which of several descriptions is true or the one to accept

1. Scientific activity is more useful as a development of more accurate descriptions of phenomena 
2. No one empirical study will provide enough evidence 
3. It is more productive to question the effect of a particular process under certain conditions than the process itself within the theory it is operating

1. Research-then-theory  (RTT)
2. Theory-then-research (TTR)

1. Select and list characteristics of phenomenon 
2. Measure characteristics in a variety of settings 
3. Analyze data for patterns 
4. Formulate patterns as theoretical statements making the law of nature

1. Develop an explicit theory in axiomatic or process description form 
2. Select a statement generated by the theory for comparison with results of empirical research 
3. Design a research project to test statements 
4. If statement and results don't jive, try, try again 
5. If statement and results DO jive, select more statement for testing or determine theory limitations

• RTT scientists discover real patterns in nature
• TTR scientists impose descriptions on phenomenon studied

1. Invent a new theoretical concept to be used as part of a theory—hypothetical or one w/ empirical referents 
2. Suggest new ways to organize causal relationships among old or old & new concepts

1. Exploratory (investigator looks at phenomenon) 
2. Descriptive (develop careful descriptions of patterns suspected in exploratory stage) 
3. Explanatory (develop explicit theory used to explain empirical generalization that evolve from descriptive stage)

These provide a more efficient and more accurate representation of the iterative process 

1. Individual observation (directly observes social phenomenon in natural setting and provides unbiased record) 
2. Survey (collection of people or social system is measured with respect to certain individual characteristics) 
3. Experimental (phenomenon is reproduced in a controlled situation and various measurements are made—often those not available in natural setting)

• Large number of subtle and interrelated processes 
• Problem of achieving intersubjective measurement of abstract objects 
• Changes in social and individual phenomena under observation 
• Difficulty in objectivity 
• Ethical considerations limit research

What are the 2 conditions of observation

for Empirical Relevance?

1. Scientific theoryies must be falsifiable.
2. Scientific theories must be supported by observations.

• A idea is either meticulously crafted or designed by inspiration (or a combo of both).
• An idea describes how reality works and helps us imporove the human condition by this knowledge.

One abstract relationship statement within a theory derived from axioms.

Example: "The greater the human capital investment, the greater the life chances."

A statement of relationships selected for comparison against data in a specific (concrete) situation of the proposition

Example: "The greater the formal education, the greater the income."

• Building blocks of theories
• Symbols designed to convey a speicific meaning to a community of scholars
• Must be defined, operationalized, and reviewed by the community for meaning and accuracy
• Defined with primitive or derived terms

Example: "emotional intelligence"

Used for catagorizing and organizing with no inherent ranking
 

Example: male/female; Christian/Hindu/Muslim/Jew

Ranking without a continuous ordering
 

Example: large, medium, small

Ranking with continuous ordering with no zero-state
 

Example: attitudes about same sex marriage expressed in a Likert scale; celsius temperature

Continuous ranking with a known zero
 

Example: Age in years; Kelvin temperature where zero is the place at which particles have zero kinetic energy

An expression about reality

Robin Williams: "Reality! Now there's a Concept!"

A relationship without implying cause
 

Example: "locus of control and self-esteem will vary together but not necessarily cause one another.

One statement (x) causes antoher statement (y)
 

Example: the greater the formal educaiton, the greater the income.