Term
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| The term assigned to any text or discourse, or, it might be text used within the context of a mode of inquiry in qualitative research (Chase, 2005), with a specific focus on the stories told by individuals (Polkinghorn, 1995) |
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| An approach to research that focuses on gaining an in-depth understanding of a particular entity or event at a specific time. Therefore, as Carla Willig (2008) asserts, case studies “are not characterized by the methods used to collect and analyze data, but rather its focus on a particular unit of analysis: a case” (p. 74). |
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| Coherent group of tested general propositions, commonly regarded as correct, that can be used as principles of explanation and prediction for a class of phenomena. Accounting for a number of facts |
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| A proposition, or set of propositions, set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena, either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide investigation (working hypothesis) or accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts. |
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| A type of scientific research. In general terms, scientific research consists of an investigation that: seeks answers to a question, systematically uses a predefined set of procedures to answer the question, collects evidence, produces findings that were not determined in advance, produces findings that are applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the study. Additionally, it seeks to understand a given research problem or topic from the perspectives of the local population it involves. It is especially effective in obtaining culturally specific information about the values, opinions, behaviors, and social contexts of particular populations. |
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| Can tell you that something is happening but not why. Is research that uses numerical analysis? In essence, this approach reduces the data into numbers, such as the percent of teenage mothers in Florida. The researcher knows in advance what he/she is looking for and all aspects of the study are carefully designed before the data is collected. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. |
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| Theory comes after the data gathering. Is a general research method (and thus is not owned by any one school or discipline); which guides you on matters of data collection (where you can use quantitative data or qualitative data of any type e.g. Video, images, text, observations, spoken word etc.); and details strict procedures for data analysis. |
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| Formulated by Blumer (1969) is the process of interaction in the formation of meanings for individuals. The inspiration for this theory came from Dewey (1881), which believed that human beings are best understood in a practical, interactive relation to their environment. |
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| Is the collection and analysis of an intensive account of a whole life or portion of a life, usually by an in-depth, unstructured interview? The account may be reinforced by semi-structured interviewing or personal documents. Rather than concentrating upon a ‘snapshot’ of an individual's present situation, the biographical approach emphasises the placement of the individual within a nexus of social connections, historical events and life experiences (the life history). An important sub-stream of the method focuses upon the manner in which the respondent actively constructs a narrative of their life in response to the social context at the time of interview (the life story). |
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| Description of a "lived experience" of a phenomenon. As this is a qualitative analysis of narrative data, methods to analyze its data must be quite different from more traditional or quantitative methods of research. |
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| A prime example of a discipline whose models and methods were developed in nonhuman animal research and then applied to research on humans. Firmly grounded in the evolutionary thinking of Charles R. Darwin, it perhaps made its most valuable contribution to theoretical refinement through its commitment to understanding behavior on multiple levels: (a) proximate causation (which may be physiological or environmental in origin), (b) ultimate causation (the adaptive function of the behavior in enhancing survival and/or reproductive fitness), (c) phylogeny (the behavior’s pattern in related species), and (d) ontogeny (the developmental course of the behavior) (Tinbergen, 1963). |
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| A field of philosophy concerned with the possibility, nature, sources and limits of human knowledge. As distinct from ontology (the study of the essential nature of reality), epistemology is concerned with whether or how we can have knowledge of reality: questions that have concerned philosophers since, at least, the Ancient Greeks. Criteria for what counts as knowledge (rather than mere belief) normally include reference to truth and to the justification for it. |
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| Entails the researcher being aware of his effect on the process and outcomes of research based on the premise that ‘knowledge cannot be separated from the knower’ (Steedman, 1991) and that, ‘In the social sciences, there is only interpretation. Nothing speaks for itself’ (Denzin, 1994). In carrying out qualitative research, it is impossible to remain ‘outside’ our subject matter; our presence, in whatever form, will have some kind of effect. It takes account of this researcher involvement |
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| Categorizing Qualitative Data |
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Definition
| Can only be arranged into categories that are not numerical. These categories can be physical traits, gender, colors or anything that does not have a number associated to it. It is sometimes referred to as categorical data. |
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| Categorizing Quantitative Data |
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Definition
| It is numerical. It is acquired through counting or measuring. |
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Definition
| Is prejudice about or leaning towards something. An author shows bias by leaving out information or by altering facts to force the reader to have a certain opinion about a subject, or to convince the reader to take a certain action. Critical reading requires that a reader recognize bias in writing. Without this recognition, the reader may become the victim of the writer’s propaganda. To identify it in a passage or article, the reader must read through the material and ask, “What does the writer want me to think or to do?” It is often present in editorials, advertisements, religious publications, and political materials. There are several common devices or techniques used by writers of propaganda and biased material. Some of these are” |
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Term
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Definition
| Include Reference To Great Men, Flattery, Stacking The Cards, Bandwagon and Plain Folks. |
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Term
| Use Of Words For Emotional Effect |
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Definition
| Words like “commie,” “racist,” “hippie,” “liberal,” “pinko,” and others are used to promote either a positive or a negative response in the reader. |
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| Politicians often refer to famous men in the history of our country in order to gain support for their ideas. |
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Definition
| The writer may use praise to try to gain a positive reaction from the reader. |
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| Instead of giving an objective description, the writer may give evidence to support only one side of a question and may deliberately omit any opposing ideas. |
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| A writer might suggest that everyone is doing something or thinking in a certain way and that the reader should do the same. |
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| Many politicians and advertisers try to appeal to common people. Politicians attempt to make voters identify with them by presenting themselves as ordinary people. |
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| The art of dramatic composition and the representation of the main elements of drama on the stage. |
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Term
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Definition
| A person or thing that represents another or others. An agent or deputy: “I legal representative”. A person who represents a constituency or community in a legislative body, especially a member of the US house or representatives or a lower house in certain state legislature. A typical example or specimen of a group, quality or kind. |
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Term
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Definition
| A conversation with a purpose. Specifically, the purpose is to gather information. |
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Definition
| Only states that sampling matters. It doesn’t tell us how to define the community, what makes people representative, or even how many subjects to aim for. |
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Definition
| As interrelated ideas about various patterns, concepts, processes, relationships, or events. In a formal sense, sense, social scientists usually define them as a system of logical statements or propositions that explain the relationships between two or more objects, concepts phenomena, or characteristics of humans. (p 20) |
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Definition
| Are symbolic or abstract elements representing objects, properties, or features of objects, processes, or phenomenon. |
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Definition
| Goes far beyond the passive role of verifying and testing theory; it does more than confirm of refute hypotheses. It plays an active role: it performs at least four major functions, which help shape the development of theory. It initiates, it reformulates, it deflects, and clarifies theory |
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Term
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Definition
| You must decide whether to use a single data collections strategy or to combine several strategies |
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| Multiple Investigator Triangulation |
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Definition
| Will you undertake the study alone or with the assistance of others |
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| Theoretical Triangulation |
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Definition
| You must consider whether the study will be framed by a single overarching theory or by several related theories |
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Term
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Definition
| Symbolic elements, Foundation of communication and thought, Two distinct parts: Symbolic elements (word, symbol, term) Definitional element. |
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Definition
| Ideas & theory come before empirical research; lead to refutation through research |
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Definition
| Research leads to theory development. Research initiates, reformulates, deflects and clarifies theory |
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Term
| The Spiraling Research Approach |
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Definition
| A Blended Model, Begin with a rough idea, Gather theoretical information, Reconsider and redefine: Idea, Theory, Design, Data, Analysis, Dissemination, Collection |
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Term
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Definition
| Formulate a rough question, Visit the Library, Conduct both online and in-print searches, Make a list of search terms, Evaluate the results, |
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Definition
| Stay away from Wikipedia! Information to check on every website: URL, Domain, Date of last update, Corroborating information |
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Definition
| Author Card: Full citation; Library call number, Topic Card: Author’s name, Date of publication, Brief topical label, Verbatim excerpt |
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Definition
| Providing the criteria for measuring a concept. To define and clarify specific concepts for the purpose of a specific research |
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Definition
| Providing a working definition of a concept |
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Definition
| The plan for conducting a study, Foresee possible glitches, Consider appropriate pacing, Appraise ethical proprieties |
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Definition
| A visual organizational tool in 8 steps: List the concepts, Rearrange concepts from abstract to specific, Order the concepts into meaningful columns, Move columns into idea clusters, Explain emerging relationships through literature, Include examples, Create the flow chart, Refine and make changes |
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Term
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Definition
| Identification of a data-collection site. Practical: Entry or access, Availability. Reasonable in size and complexity. Appropriateness. |
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Definition
| Probability or nonprobability |
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Term
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Definition
| Mathematically representative of the larger population, Relies on random sampling. Simple Random Sampling, Systematic Random Sampling, and Stratified random sampling |
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Definition
| Doesn’t require a list of the population elements, Can be used with difficult or sensitive populations. Convenience samples, Purposive Samples, Snowball samples and Quota Samples. |
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Definition
| Every unit has the same chance of inclusion |
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Term
| Systematic Random Sampling |
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Definition
| Every nth unit is selected from the list |
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| Stratified Random Sampling |
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Definition
| Independent samples from subgroups of the sample |
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Term
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Definition
| Relies on available subjects |
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Term
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Definition
| Researcher knowledge or expertise |
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Definition
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Three parts: data reduction, data display and conclusions and verification |
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Definition
| Reduce and transform the data |
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Definition
| Organize and assemble the data |
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Term
| Conclusions And Verification |
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Definition
| Confirm initial conclusions through double checking and independent examination |
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Definition
| The “formal written permission by an informed parent or legal guardian that allows a child to participate in a research project” |
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Definition
| Usually based on the assumption that parental permission is granted if parents do not return a refusal form after being informed about the study’s purpose |
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Term
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Definition
| Once the interviewer and subject agree and informed consent is obtained either in person or online, it can be undertaken through the use of private chat rooms where both the interviewer and the subject interact in real time, asking and answering questions over the Internet. Again, with regard to informed consent, information about the study can be transmitted to the subject’s e-mail, and agreement to take part in the interview can be obtained at that time or, to maintain anonymity, during the course of the interview, once the interviewer directs the subject to the chat space. |
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Term
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Definition
| The question of voluntary participation virtually begs another question, namely, what role a researcher should take when conducting research. Range from Complete participant, Participant as observer, Observer as participant to Complete observer. |
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Term
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Definition
| In this case, the researcher seeks to engage fully in the activities of the group or organization under investigation. Thus, this role requires the researcher to enter the setting covertly as a secret or hidden investigator. For example, a researcher might enter a subcultural group in this manner without making his or her intent to conduct research known to the people involved in the group under investigation. Among the advantages to this role is that more accurate information is likely to flow permitting the researcher to obtain a fuller understanding of the interactions and meanings that are held important to those regularly involved in this group in this setting. This is the most covert role, and therefore the one most likely to introduce risks to the subjects and the researcher. |
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Term
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Definition
| When the researcher adopts this role, he or she is accepting an overt or announced role as a researcher. In this case, the researcher formally makes his or her presence and intentions known to the group being studied. This may involve a general announcement that he or she will be conducting research, or a specific introduction as the researcher meets various people who participate in the setting. This strategy carries its own problems related to the ability of the researcher to develop sufficient rapport with participants, and the potential that the researcher will go native; that is, become so immersed in the activities, issues, and meanings of the group that he or she has difficulty maintaining an objective researcher’s perspective on these activities, issues, and meanings. |
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Term
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Definition
| Researchers donning the role of the observer as participant move away from the idea of participation but continue to embrace the overt role as an investigator. Often, this role involves a single site or setting visit, along with the use of interviews, and may call for relatively more formal observation (e.g., examination of the organizational structure of a business or group, and written policies, rather than the organization or group’s norms and practices). These replace the more informal observation or participations usually associated with other researcher observational roles. This strategy runs the risk of the researcher failing to understand some of the subtleties and nuances between participants involved in this organization or group; consequently, the researcher may miss or fail to adequately appreciate certain informal norms, roles, or relationships. |
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Term
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Definition
| When a researcher uses the complete observer role, it too tends to be an overt and announced role as a researcher. In this case, however, the researcher typically remains in the setting for a prolonged period of time, but is a passive observer to the flow of activities and interactions. For example, the researcher may sit in the rear of a classroom and observe training of police recruits during academy training classes. From this vantage, the researcher can freely move in and around the setting and participants while observing the recruits and the instructors—but not while serving or masquerading as either. |
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Term
| Deception/Ethical Absolutist |
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Definition
| Many researchers, however, strenuously oppose covert research or any sort of deception of subjects on both ethical and pragmatic grounds. This sort of ethical absolutist perspective argues that researchers have no right to invade peoples’ privacy under the color of scientific research, and that the deliberate deception of participants regarding the researcher’s true intentions can always potentially cause harm to the subjects. |
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Definition
| Another justification sometimes offered by researchers taking this ethical relativist stance is that subjects alter their behaviors once they learn that they are being studied; thus, covert research strategies avoid this type of Hawthorne effect. |
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Term
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Definition
| Suggests that when subjects know they are subjects in a research study, they will alter their usual (routine) behavior. That is, they react to the presence of the researcher. Fortunately, this effect is often short-lived, and the behavior of subjects eventually returns to a more routine style. But the persistent presence of ethnographers in a social setting might certainly reactivate the Hawthorne effect in varying degrees every time someone new is introduced to the researchers. |
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Term
| 6 Compensatory Strategies For The Hawthorne Effect |
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Definition
| Give it time, act like one belongs, Participate, Make friends, False topic, and being covert. |
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Term
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Definition
| One of 6 strategies for the Hawthorne effect. When the ethnographers have been present in a domain for a long time, the inhabitants tend not to be aware of them anymore. The notice inhabitants initially took of them has eroded or worn off. They cease to be a concern by just being there without interacting much. |
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Definition
| One of 6 strategies for the Hawthorne effect. Eventually, ethnographers just fit into the domain they are studying by downplaying the differences between themselves and their study population. This might involve dressing like a local, acting more like a member of the community, or demonstrating an insider’s knowledge of jokes, expectations, and other people. |
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Term
| Participate With Ordinary Inhabitants In Their Everyday Routines |
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Definition
| One of 6 strategies for the Hawthorne effect. By working shoulder to shoulder with inhabitants, the researchers’ ethnographer status blends with their new roles in the group or community. Subjects will be aware of the researchers but tend to primarily recognize their non-research role. |
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Definition
| One of 6 strategies for the Hawthorne effect. This is a strong case of establishing rapport. Subjects will still be conscious of the researcher’s role, but they may develop the habit of helping anyway, because of the personal relationship. |
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Term
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Definition
| One of 6 strategies for the Hawthorne effect. Define yourself as a researcher, but distract the subjects with this. Subjects may be self-conscious about, for example, their job performance while at work, but relaxed about their social relations during break times. The researcher will therefore be as though invisible during the breaks. |
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Term
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Definition
| One of 6 strategies for the Hawthorne effect. Since the normal inhabitants of the domain under examination are not aware of the ethnographers’ real activities in the setting, the ethnographers eventually become socially invisible. For the most part, this is not a recommended strategy. |
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Term
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Definition
| An active attempt to remove from the research records any elements that might indicate the subjects’ identities. |
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Term
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Definition
| The subjects remain nameless. In some instances, such as self-administered survey questionnaires, it may be possible to provide this. Although investigators may know to whom surveys were distributed, if no identifying marks have been placed on the returned questionnaires, the respondents remain unknown. |
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Term
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Definition
| Do No Harm, Informed consent, Potential harm, Potential Benefit, Voluntary Consent |
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Term
| Ethically Questionable Studies |
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Definition
| Spitz: everyone gives the wrong answer does the participant agree, was mentally exhausting, Tuskegee Syphilis Study, Stanley Milgram’s “Obedience”, Philip Zimbardo’s “Stanford Prison Experiment,” CIA’s ARTICHOKE program, Laud Humphrey’s “Tea Room Trade” – men would meet and engage in homosexual behavior, then he went and interviewed them at home |
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Term
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Definition
| National Research Act of 1974: Established Institutional Review Boards (IRB), Buckley Amendment: Protection of privacy, Privacy Acts of 1974: Safeguards for the release of records |
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Term
| Institutional Review Boards |
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Definition
| Ensure safety to human subjects, Assurance of informed consent, Advise subjects of potential risks and benefits, Ensure unhampered research opportunities |
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Term
| Justification For Non-Consent |
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Definition
| To gain a more meaningful understanding of the research topic, Volunteers may be coerced or manipulated, To provide accountability of public officials, To create a representative sample |
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Term
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Definition
| Child Protection: Target organizations with an adult audience, Avoid using cutesy images or cartoons, Require registration with an adult check system, Brief set of screening questions. Debriefing Subjects: Secure the participant’s e-mail address, Include an exit study button directing participants to a debriefing page, Provide researcher contact information, and Direct participants to a real-time chat room. |
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Term
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Definition
| Ensures voluntary participation, Statement of potential risks and benefits, Signed by participant and researcher |
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Term
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Definition
| Consent is indicated through participation |
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Term
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Definition
| Can be active or passive as well as informed or implied. |
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Term
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Definition
| Confidentiality: Remove identifiers from research records, Federal Certificate of Confidentiality, Anonymity: Subjects remain nameless |
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Term
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Definition
| Establish common ground, Appearance and demeanor, Social Interpretations, Nonverbal channels: body gestures, signs, phonemic sounds. The positive feelings that develop between the interviewer and the subject, it should not be understood as meaning there are no boundaries between the interviewer and the subject. The model of the dramaturgical interview should be interpreted as a conversation between two people centered on one person’s perceptions on the events of daily life… In many ways, the ideal situation would be to assist the subject in conveying almost a monologue on the research topic. …if the interviewer is able to establish some sense of common ground, then one avenue of building it could be opened. |
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Term
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Definition
| The affected messages transferred from one acting individual to another through nonverbal channels. These nonverbal channels include body gestures, facial grimaces, signs, symbols, and even some phonemic sounds such as tongue clicks, grunts, sighs, and similar visible indicators of communication (physical proximity between participant actors, their blocking, etc.). |
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Term
| Participatory Model Of Interviewing |
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Definition
| Some feminist researchers have argued that interviewers must be willing to offer self-disclosures of personal information and develop genuine relationships with their interviewees beyond the boundaries of the roles of interviewer and interviewees |
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Term
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Definition
| Recite scripted lines (interview questions), remain nonjudgmental. You must perform your lines, routines, and movements appropriately. This means that in addition to reciting scripted or unscripted lines (the interview guidelines), you must be aware of what the other actor (the interviewee) is doing throughout the interview. You must listen carefully to line cues in order to avoid stepping on the lines of the interviewee (interrupting before the subject has completely answered a question). In addition, as actor, you must remain nonjudgmental regardless of what the interviewee may say. If you want people to openly talk about their feelings and views, you must refrain from making any negative judgments—either verbally or through visual cues. The best way to accomplish this is to accept people for who and what they are; avoid making judgments of their actions, beliefs, or lifestyles, even in your mind. This might mean that there are certain people whom you should not interview because you, personally, cannot suspend your judgment of them. |
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Term
| The Interviewer As Choreographer |
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Definition
| Control the interview process. You and the interviewee are constantly in the process of performing and evaluating your own and each other’s performance. |
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Term
| The Interviewer’s Repertoire |
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Definition
| Interviewers make adjustments throughout the interview consisting largely of switching from one role to another or altering their style of speech, manner, or set of lines. Interviewers should be prepared with a series of basic questions that may be triggered by virtually any possible topic area. These questions, very simply, include “Who with?” “Where?” “How come?” “How often?” “How many?” And a variety of similar questions relevant to the specifics of the study. In other words, during the design stages of the research, one must think about the possibility that unanticipated subject areas might arise. Consequently, even the unanticipated can be planned for! |
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Term
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Definition
| Standardized Interviews: Formally structured, Semistandardized Interviews, Guided or focused. Unstandardized: Informal or nondirective |
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Term
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Definition
| Are designed to elicit information using a set of predetermined questions that are expected to elicit the subjects’ thoughts, opinions, and attitudes about study-related issued may be thought of as a kind of survey interview. |
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Term
| Semistandardized Interview |
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Definition
| Can be located somewhere between the extremes of the completely standardized and the completely unstandardized interviewing structures. This type of interview involves the implementation of a number of predetermined questions and special topics. These questions are typically asked of each interviewee in a systematic and consistent order, but the interviewers are allowed freedom to digress; that is, the interviewers are permitted (in fact, expected) to probe far beyond the answers to their prepared standardized questions. |
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Term
| Unstandardized Interviews |
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Definition
| Are loosely structured. While certain topics may be necessary and planned, the actual flow of the conversation will vary considerably according to the responses of each informant. No specific questions need to be scripted. As much as possible, the interviewer encourages the informant to lead the conversation. In place of an “interview schedule,” researchers prepare a looser set of topics or issues that one plans on discussing, possibly with a preferred order in which to address them. |
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Term
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Definition
| Essential questions, Extra questions, Throw-away questions, Probing questions |
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Term
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Definition
| Exclusively concern the central focus of the study. They may be placed together or scattered throughout the survey, but they are geared toward eliciting specific desired information. |
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Term
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Definition
| Questions roughly equivalent to certain essential ones but worded slightly differently. These are included in order to check on the reliability of responses (through examination of consistency in response sets) or to measure the possible influence a change of wording might have. |
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Term
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Definition
| May be essential demographic questions or general questions used to develop rapport between interviewers and subjects. You may also find certain them sprinkled throughout a survey to set the interviewing pace or to allow a change in focus in the interview. As the term implies, are incidental or unnecessary for gathering the important information being examined in the study. On occasion, they may serve the additional purpose of cooling out the subject (Becker, 1963; Goffman, 1967). On these occasions, they (or a series of them) may be tossed into an interview whenever subjects indicate to the interviewers that a sensitive area has been entered |
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Term
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Definition
| Provide interviewers with a way to draw out more complete stories from subjects. They frequently ask subjects to elaborate on what they have already answered in response to a given question—for example, “Could you tell me more about that?” “How long did you have that?” “What happened next?” “Who else has ever said that about you?” Or simply, “How come?” |
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Term
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Definition
| In order to acquire information while interviewing you must ask questions in such a manner as to motivate respondents to answer as completely and honestly as possible. |
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Term
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Definition
| Affectively worded questions, Produce a negative emotional response, Double Barreled Questions, Complex Questions, Long or involved questions |
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Term
| Affectively Worded Questions |
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Definition
| Arouse in most people an emotional response that is usually negative. Although these questions may not be intended as antagonistic, they nonetheless can close down or inhibit interview subjects (mcgovern, 2006). For instance, the word why, in American culture, tends to produce in most people a negative response. One possible explanation has to do with the punitive connotation of this question |
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Term
| Double Barreled Questions |
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Definition
| Among the more common problems that arise in preparing guidelines or schedules. This type of question asks a subject to respond simultaneously to two issues in a single question. |
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Term
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Definition
| The pattern of exchange that constitutes verbal communication in Western society involves more than listening. When one person is speaking, the other is listening, anticipating, and planning how to respond. Consequently, when researchers ask a long, involved question, the subjects may not really hear the question in its entirety. Their response, then, may be only to some small portion of a greater concern woven into the complex question. Thus, keeping questions brief and concise allows clear responses and more effective analysis of the answers. |
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Term
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Definition
| Advantages: Reduced staff requirements, Widespread geographic areas, Economical, Can be recorded. Disadvantages: Subjects with no telephone, Unlisted numbers, Caller ID, Loss of visual cues |
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Term
| Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (Cati) |
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Definition
| Can skip transcription, Provides an added sense of anonymity, Loss of visual cues, |
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Term
| Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (Capi) |
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Definition
| Responses can be recorded by the interviewer or the subject, Poor typing skills or lack of reading ability may affect data |
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Term
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Definition
| Real-time chat rooms, instant messenger protocols, real-time threaded communications |
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Term
| Asynchronous Environments |
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Definition
| E-mail, message boards, privately hosted bulleting posting areas |
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Term
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Definition
| Actor Director and choreographer |
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Term
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Definition
| Perform lines and assess the performance |
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Term
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Definition
| Uncomfortable silence, echoing and letting people talk. |
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Term
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Definition
| Create a long silent pause after a question |
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Term
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Definition
| To repeat the last bit of what someone said, to help them continue their story |
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Term
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Definition
| Avoid unintentional interruptions |
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Term
| The Ten Commandments Of Interviewing |
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Definition
| Never begin an interview cold, Remember your purpose, Present a natural front, Demonstrate awareness and hearing, Think about appearance, Interview in a comfortable place, Don’t be satisfied with monosyllabic answers, Be respectful, Practice, practice, and practice some more, Be cordial and appreciative |
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