the condition in which an individual has 2 identical alleles for a trait

could be homozygous dominant or homozygous recessive 

(AA or aa)

the condition in which an individual has 2 DIFFERENT alleles for a trait

(Aa) 

the genetic make up of an organism

homozygous dominent, homozygous recessive, or heterozygous 

what is the recessive trait?

the trait that is NOT expressed when the contrasting form of the trait is present

only shows up when its homozygous recessive 

1.  produce a true breeding population called the "P" generation bye self pollinating plant witht the desired trait
2. produce the "F₁" generation (filial) by crosspollinating the P generationg plants
3.  produce the "F₂" generation bye allowing the "F₁" generation to self pollinate 

a cross between individuals regarding only one trait

(has to be controlled by one pair of genes) 

when 2 or more alleles influence the phenotype

(blending)

(i.e. crossing a red and white flower → PINK)

when both alleles for a trait are expressed in a heterozygous individual

neither are dominant, and they DO NOT blend

(i.e. gene for coat color red AND white, does NOT turn pink, the coat has red and white hairs in it growing together → roan) 

in a codominant situation with multiple alleles, what are the types of alleles?

(i.e. all dominant, all recessive) 

there are 2 alleles that are equally dominant and a RECESSIVE 3^rd allele

(i.e.  blood type- I^A, type A, has antigens

I^B, type B, has antigens

i, type O, does NOT have antigens) 

what are all the possible genotypes for different blood types?

(A, B, AB, or O) 

 TO HAVE A BLOOD: I^A I^A or I^A i

TO HAVE B BLOOD: I^B I^B or I^B i

TO HAVE AB BLOOD: I^A I^B

TO HAVE O BLOOD: ii 

1: determine genotypes of parents

mother: heterozygous for big brain and big toes 

father: heterozygous for big toes, homozygous recessive for big brain (has samll brain)

2: determine gametes parents could give

use FOIL(front, outside, inside, last)

mother: BbTt--> BT, Bt, bT, bt

father:bbTt--> bt, bT, bt, bT

3: punnett spare, sorry, you have to look in your notes to see what it looks like

remember, if the gametes (i.e. BT) repeat, you DO NOT have to do that section

4: get results from punnett square and organize

GENOTYPE- BbTT:BbTt:bbTT:bbTt:Bbtt:bbtt

w/o repeat-1 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 1 : 1 

w/ reapeat- just double all numbers

PHENOTYPE-

big brain+toes:small brain+big toes:

big brain+small toes:small brain+toes

3 : 3 :

1 : 1 

complete

(normal inheiritance) 

1: seen (usually) in males

how to tell- count the number of people who have it

if there are 2 or more males who have it than females, it's sex-linked

2: if every child that has the trait has a parent who does too, then its dominant

3: i dont understand what i wrote down, but ill write it anyway

homozygous dominant or heterozygous--> show dominant

homozygous recessive--> show recessive

2 heterozygous people--> maybe recessive child 

cure diseases

treat genetic disorders

improve food crops 

cut at specific sites

(i.e. E coR1, or something like that, cuts at CTTA*cut*G)

because DNA is double stranded, r enzymes cut one from right to left and the other from left to right

a "sticky end"

(whats left of the combination i.e. CTTAA) 

VECTOR-an organism that transports something from one place to another

CLONING VECTOR- a carrier that is used to clone a gene and transfer it from one organism to another

the most common cloning vector

ring of DNA in bacteria 

1. the same r enzyme cuts the donor gene and the plasmid leaving the same sticky end

2. the donor gene is spliced into the plasmid

3. the plasmid is returned to the bacteria

4. when the bacteria splits, it makes copies of the donor gene which makes more bacteria with the desired trait

5. bacteria is screened

    5a.along with the desired trait, a gene for a resistance to antibodies is inserted

    5b. so anti bodies kill all bacteria that DONT have the new gene 

banding patterns from 2 differnt people to see if they are related

patterns from two different species to see if they are similar 

forensic/medical

bloodstains

orgins of diseases 

~restriction length polymorphism

~ extract DNA from source

~ DNA cut w/ restriction enzymes

~separted

    -gel electrophoresis

        _^*small fragment moves further towards                   positive end (DNA is negative)

~ radioactive probes bind to DNA fragments that are    selected

~photographic film (xray) allows people to see radioactive probes 

        -produces DNA profilie
 

extract DNA

restriction enzymes

separation

analyze 

what is separation based on?

for gel electrophorysis) 

charge, size, shape of molecules 

what is PCR?

(polymerase chain reaction) 

DNA

DNA polymerase

free nucleotides

primers-single stranded sequences of DNA used to initiate replication 

so....

extraction

AMPLIFICATION (if there is not enough)

restriction

separation 

1997

DOLLY

(the sheep) 

in cloning, the clone is identical to which sheep?

the surrogate mother, the sheep that provided the unfertilized egg cell, or the sheep that provided the udder cell? 

produding many animals with a particular good trait

organs that would not be rejected

form a superior human race 

cell body  (nucleus)

dendrites

axon (connects cell to node of ranvier)

node of ranvier (covered by the myelin sheath)

axon terminal

myelin sheath 

it is the basic unit of the nervous system

conducts electrical impulses

communicates with the body and other cells 

(soma/body)

transmits information from dendrites

end of axon

releases nerotransmitters that continue impulses to next neuron 

gaps between myelin sheath

impulses "jump" from node to node 

difference in charge (volts) across the cell membrane

ions move across using channels 

1. resting potential
2. depolarized/action potential
3. repolarization

what are the steps to resting potential?

(for neurons) 

what are the steps to depolarized/action potential?

(in neurons) 

what are the steps to repolarization?

(in nuerons) 

Auricle/pinna

tympanic membrane

ossicular chain

eustachian tube 

what does the auricle/pinna do?

(in the ear) 

collects sound

helps in sound localization

direct sound to eardrum 

forms boundary between outer and middle ear

vibrates in response to sound 

what makes up the ossicular chain?

(in an ear) 

malleus/hammer

incus/anvil

stapes/stirrup

theyre the smallest bones in the ear and vibrate when the eardrum vibrates 

what does the eustachian tube do?

(in the ear) 

connects middle ear to the back of throat

equalizes air pressure

closed except during yawning or swallowing

not a part of the hearing process 

the cochlea

the vestibular system (3 semicircular canals)

hair cells 

what is the cochlea?

(in the ear)  

a snail shaped organ w/ series of fluid filled tunnels

converts mechanical energy into electrical energy

what is the vestibular system?

(in the ear) 

3 semi circular canals

controls balance

NOT part of hearing process 

i dont understand what i wrote but here it is

frequency-specific

high pitched sound-base of cochlea

low pitched sounds-apex of cochlea 

injury

disease

genetic problems 

conductive

nerve 

failure of 3 tiny bones in middle ear (ossicular chain) to pass along sound waves to inner ear

or

failure of eardrum to vibrate 

caused by disease, trauma, disruptive event targeting cochlea nerve

or

electrical impulses cannot reach the brain 

the microphone picks up sound and sends it to

processor, which amplifies the signal

the receivor directs sound into the ear canal 

community

population

organism 

the thin volume of Earth and its atmosphere that supports life

from a few feet under the surface to where birds stop flying 

any close relationship or association between members of 2 or more species

commensalism

mutualism

parasitism 

when one species is benefited but the other is not harmed

(doesnt care) 

a producer

makes its own food

(i.e. plants) 

a consumer

must obtain food

(i.e. humans) 

interconnected food chains

more realistic because organsims usually feed on different things 

the way the individuals of a population are arranged in space

random

even

clumped 

limited resources whose rates of depletion depend of the density of the population using them

(i.e. food, water) 

factors unaffected by density

these affect the fgrowth of populations

(i.e. climate, geography) 

exponential model- "J" shaped curve showing a rapid increase in population size

logistic model- the population model in which exponential growth is limited by density dependent factors 

a population in equilibrium, its density hovers near carrying capacity

r=short

k= long 

r=short

k=long 

what is the death rate,

number of reproductive events,

timing of reproductive events,

how many offspring they have at once,

the size of offspring/egg,

and the amount of parental care

for r and k strategists?

death rate

r=high

k= usually low

 number of reproductive events

r=one

k=one or more 

timing of reproductive events

r=very early

k=later in life

number of offpring

r=many

k=few

size of offspring

r=small

k=large

amount of parental care

r=none

k= often extensive 

a "subsitute" teacher was put in jail for teaching about evolution in the classroom

(her was actually a lawyer for the american civil liberties union)

in 1968 the supreme court changed the law so....

teaching creationism is ILLEGAL

and

teaching evolution is LEGAL 

in the beginning, all matter in the universe was condensed into a tiny little ball

then....

BANG

it expanded to fill up the universe 

first...it was an enormous cloud of dust and gas

began to condense because of gravity

the heat and pressure increased nuclear fusion

H atoms →  He atoms

a star is formed

planets condense but do not erupt into nuclear fusion 

NO

they blow up 

glossopteris, the plant

or whatever else you remember 

eras

periods

epochs 

radioactive dating

(its 4.5 billion years old) 

relative

absolute 

the layers of soil that lie above an object are younger than the layers below the object

how do you find the number of half lives?

(the formula/equation) 

what are the two kinds of fossils?

imprints

casts 

how does the fossil record support evolution?

the oldest fossils are the simplest

the youngest fossils are the most complex 

similar structures that are derived from the same body part

(if they are similar, it is assumed the species are related)

an organsim develops in the same way as its ancestors

(is this true or not?)

time

mutations 

morphological

physiological

behavioral 

intraspecific

interspecific 

comepetition between two or more individuals of the same population for resources

2 species competing for the same (limited) resource

(they impact each others population) 

on the Galapogos Islands, there are 13 different species of finches

what did they evolve from? 

a small flock of

grassquits 

in natural selection, what does the environment do?

limits the growth of populations by increasing the rate of death or decreasing the rate or reproduction

(or BOTH) 

the environment "selects" the trais that will increase in a population

the selection conditions change as the demands of the environment change 

stabilizing selection

directional selection

disruptive selection 

sexual selection 

when individuals from BOTH extremes are favored

(they dont have to HAVE both extreme traits, thats not possible, like they cant be tall AND short, its just that really TALL and really SHORT people are favored) 

when there is a difference in what happens to males and females in a selection

(i.e. males have to have LARGE feathers, and females have to have  BRIGHT feathers)

the stability of gene frequencies across generations

(pheotypes change)

i think thats it, but im not sure 

p+q=1

p² +2pq+q²=1

what is evolution?

(im not sure if this is already a card or not) 

constantly at a very low rate

(under normal conditions) 

when allele frequencies in a pop change due to RANDOM events

(especially affects medium/small populations) 

geographical proximity

 mate selection due to certain similar characteristics

(assortive mating)

genotypes

(the overall allele frequencies are not affected) 

geographical

reproductive

(disruptive selection,

prezygotic,

postzygotic) 

physical separation

(i.e. river, canyon) 

isolation before fertilization

(i.e. incompatible behavior →  different mating call)

isolation after fertilization

(i.e. offspring die or are sterile, cannot reproduce) 

based on external structure and appearance

positive-easy to use

negative-does not allow for phenotypic variation 

a species is a population of organisms that can successfully interbreed but cannot with other groups

positive-good for living organisms

negative-useless for extinct species and for organisms that reproduce asexually 

gradualism-Darwin

punctuated equilibrium 

the world started with one 1 species which evolved into 2 then 3 and so on

its VERY gradual 

changes in 2 or more species in close association with each other

(i.e. prey changes then predator has to change) 

kingdom

phyla

classes

orders

families

genus

species 

the fossil record

morphology

embryological patterns

chomosomes(karyotypes)

macromolecules 

uses:derived characteristics

for: to establish evolutionary relatinships