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2nd sem BIO H MR ROGERS CHS
try to do the cards in ascending order caz im not sure if they are clarified enough to do it by random
197
Biology
9th Grade
06/13/2008

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Cards

Term
what is homozygous?
Definition

the condition in which an individual has 2 identical alleles for a trait

could be homozygous dominant or homozygous recessive 

(AA or aa)

Term
what is heterozygous?
Definition

the condition in which an individual has 2 DIFFERENT alleles for a trait

(Aa) 

Term
what is a genotype?
Definition

the genetic make up of an organism

homozygous dominent, homozygous recessive, or heterozygous 

Term
what is a phenotype?
Definition
the physical appearance of an organism
Term
what is the dominant trait?
Definition
the genetic trait that is expressed when its allele is homozygous dominant or heterozygous
Term

what is the recessive trait?

 

Definition

the trait that is NOT expressed when the contrasting form of the trait is present

only shows up when its homozygous recessive 

Term
what are all the steps of Mendel's method?
Definition
  1.  produce a true breeding population called the "P" generation bye self pollinating plant witht the desired trait
  2. produce the "F1" generation (filial) by crosspollinating the P generationg plants
  3.  produce the "F2" generation bye allowing the "F1" generation to self pollinate 
Term
what is a monohybrid cross?
Definition

a cross between individuals regarding only one trait

(has to be controlled by one pair of genes) 

Term
what does a punnett square do?
Definition
used to predit outcomes from a cross
Term
what is a genotype ratio?
Definition
the ratio of the genotypes that appear in the offspring
Term
what is a phenotype ratio?
Definition
ratio of phenotypes that appear in the offspring
Term
what is a test cross?
Definition
cross an unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual to find the unknown genotype
Term
what is complete dominance?
Definition
one allele is completely dominant over the other and "masks" it
Term
what is incomplete dominance?
Definition

when 2 or more alleles influence the phenotype

(blending)

(i.e. crossing a red and white flower → PINK)

 

Term
what is codominance?
Definition

when both alleles for a trait are expressed in a heterozygous individual

neither are dominant, and they DO NOT blend

(i.e. gene for coat color red AND white, does NOT turn pink, the coat has red and white hairs in it growing together → roan) 

Term

in a codominant situation with multiple alleles, what are the types of alleles?

(i.e. all dominant, all recessive) 

Definition

there are 2 alleles that are equally dominant and a RECESSIVE 3rd allele

(i.e.  blood type- IA, type A, has antigens

IB, type B, has antigens

i, type O, does NOT have antigens) 

Term

what are all the possible genotypes for different blood types?

(A, B, AB, or O) 

Definition

 TO HAVE A BLOOD: IA IA or IA i

TO HAVE B BLOOD: IB IB or IB i

TO HAVE AB BLOOD: IA IB

TO HAVE O BLOOD: ii 

Term
what are the steps for a DIHYBRID cross?
Definition

1: determine genotypes of parents

mother: heterozygous for big brain and big toes 

father: heterozygous for big toes, homozygous recessive for big brain (has samll brain)

2: determine gametes parents could give

use FOIL(front, outside, inside, last)

mother: BbTt--> BT, Bt, bT, bt

father:bbTt--> bt, bT, bt, bT

3: punnett spare, sorry, you have to look in your notes to see what it looks like

remember, if the gametes (i.e. BT) repeat, you DO NOT have to do that section

4: get results from punnett square and organize

GENOTYPE- BbTT:BbTt:bbTT:bbTt:Bbtt:bbtt

w/o repeat-1 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 1 : 1 

w/ reapeat- just double all numbers

PHENOTYPE-

big brain+toes:small brain+big toes:

big brain+small toes:small brain+toes

3 : 3 :

1 : 1 

 

 

Term
which sex chromosome is bigger?
Definition
X chromosome
Term
what is the presence of a gene on a sex chromosome called?
Definition
sex linkage
Term
are genes on both sex chromosomes the same?
Definition
NO
Term
in a male, if a gene is found on the X chromosome, is it the only one he gets?
Definition
YES
Term
in a female, what kind of dominance do sex linked traits have?
Definition

complete

(normal inheiritance) 

Term
what are the three rules for sex linked diseases?
Definition

1: seen (usually) in males

how to tell- count the number of people who have it

if there are 2 or more males who have it than females, it's sex-linked

2: if every child that has the trait has a parent who does too, then its dominant

3: i dont understand what i wrote down, but ill write it anyway

homozygous dominant or heterozygous--> show dominant

homozygous recessive--> show recessive

2 heterozygous people--> maybe recessive child 

Term
what can genetic engineering be used for?
Definition

cure diseases

treat genetic disorders

improve food crops 

Term
how do you cut the strands of DNA?
Definition
with restriction enzymes
Term
where are restriction enzymes found?
Definition
in immune systems of bacteria
Term
what do restriction enzymes do?
Definition

cut at specific sites

(i.e. E coR1, or something like that, cuts at CTTA*cut*G)

because DNA is double stranded, r enzymes cut one from right to left and the other from left to right

 

Term
after a r enzyme cuts the DNA what does it leave?
Definition

a "sticky end"

(whats left of the combination i.e. CTTAA) 

Term
what is a cloning vector?
Definition

VECTOR-an organism that transports something from one place to another

CLONING VECTOR- a carrier that is used to clone a gene and transfer it from one organism to another

 

Term
what is a plasmid?
Definition

the most common cloning vector

ring of DNA in bacteria 

Term
how does genetically engineering work with a plasmid?
Definition

1. the same r enzyme cuts the donor gene and the plasmid leaving the same sticky end

2. the donor gene is spliced into the plasmid

3. the plasmid is returned to the bacteria

4. when the bacteria splits, it makes copies of the donor gene which makes more bacteria with the desired trait

5. bacteria is screened

    5a.along with the desired trait, a gene for a resistance to antibodies is inserted

    5b. so anti bodies kill all bacteria that DONT have the new gene 

Term
what is a DNA profile?
Definition
a pattern of bands made of specific fragments or an individual's DNA
Term
what can you compare using a DNA profile?
Definition

banding patterns from 2 differnt people to see if they are related

patterns from two different species to see if they are similar 

Term
what can DNA profiling be used in?
Definition

forensic/medical

bloodstains

orgins of diseases 

Term
how do you make a DNA profile?
Definition

~restriction length polymorphism

~ extract DNA from source

~ DNA cut w/ restriction enzymes

~separted

    -gel electrophoresis

        *small fragment moves further towards                   positive end (DNA is negative)

~ radioactive probes bind to DNA fragments that are    selected

~photographic film (xray) allows people to see radioactive probes 

        -produces DNA profilie
 

Term
what are the different parts to RFLP?
Definition

extract DNA

restriction enzymes

separation

analyze 

Term
what is electrophoresis?
Definition
a method for separating large molecules by placing them in a gel
Term
what is electrophoresis used for?
Definition
to separate DNA, RNA, and proteins
Term

what is separation based on?

for gel electrophorysis) 

Definition

charge, size, shape of molecules 

Term
what do dams do in a gell tray?
Definition
hold the gell in the tray
Term
what is the order for loading the micropipet with solution?
Definition
~depress
~hold
~insert
~release
~remove 
Term
what is the order for putting the solution in the gell?
Definition
~insert
~depress
~hold
~remove
~release 
Term
how do you make a gel?
Definition
  1. in a flask, mix agarose, buffer, and water
  2. microwave for 1 minute, remove then swirl
  3. repeat
  4. make sure its CLEAR, if not microwave for 30 more seconds
  5. put thermometer in flask and place flask in cool water
  6. cool to 55  (while swirling)
  7. pour in molds
                                            OR
  1. mix
  2. heat
  3. cool
  4. pour
Term
when measuring how far the solution traveled, where do you measure from?
Definition
from the bottom of the cell, to the bottom of the band
Term

what is PCR?

(polymerase chain reaction) 

Definition
a technique used to quickly make many copies of selected fragments of DNA
Term
what are the ingredients for PCR?
Definition

DNA

DNA polymerase

free nucleotides

primers-single stranded sequences of DNA used to initiate replication 

Term
how do you do PCR?
Definition
  1. put ingredients in flask and head to 55C denatures the DNA fragment, makes it single stranded
  2. cool to 37C, primers bond to DNA fragment
  3. reheat to 72C, initiates replication
  4. all DNA fragments will be copied once every 5 minutes
Term
what step does PCR add to RFLP?
Definition
AMPLIFICATION

so....

extraction

AMPLIFICATION (if there is not enough)

restriction

separation 

Term
what is a clone?
Definition
an organism produced by asexual reproduction and that is genetically identical to its parent
Term
when was the first successful mammal cloning?
Definition

1997

DOLLY

(the sheep) 

Term
what is the process of cloning?
Definition
  • nuceus is removed from unfertilized egg cell of one sheep
  • udder cell was removed from different sheep
  • cells are fused with electric shock
  • cells are allowed to divide invitro (in a lab)
  • cells implanted in surrogate mother
Term

in cloning, the clone is identical to which sheep?

the surrogate mother, the sheep that provided the unfertilized egg cell, or the sheep that provided the udder cell? 

Definition
the sheep that provided the udder cell
Term
what are potential uses for cloning?
Definition

produding many animals with a particular good trait

organs that would not be rejected

form a superior human race 

Term
what is a neuron?
Definition
a nerve cell
Term
what are all the parts to a nueron?
Definition

cell body  (nucleus)

dendrites

axon (connects cell to node of ranvier)

node of ranvier (covered by the myelin sheath)

axon terminal

myelin sheath 

Term
what does a neuron do?
Definition

it is the basic unit of the nervous system

conducts electrical impulses

communicates with the body and other cells 

Term
what does a dendrite do?
Definition
receives information from other cells
Term
what is the cell body?
Definition

(soma/body)

transmits information from dendrites

 

Term
what is an axon?
Definition
a long extension containing cytoplasm that conducts electrical impulses
Term
what is an axon terminal?
Definition

end of axon

releases nerotransmitters that continue impulses to next neuron 

Term
what is the myelin sheath?
Definition
insulation around axon that speeds up the electrical impulse
Term
what is a node of ranvier?
Definition

gaps between myelin sheath

impulses "jump" from node to node 

Term
what is membrane potential?
Definition

difference in charge (volts) across the cell membrane

ions move across using channels 

Term
what are the 3 phases for neurons?
Definition
  1. resting potential
  2. depolarized/action potential
  3. repolarization
Term

what are the steps to resting potential?

(for neurons) 

Definition
  • neuron that is not conducting impulses
  • inside the cell it is -70mV
  • inside the cell there are large negative proteins
  • Na+ channels are closed
  • K+ channels are open
Term

what are the steps to depolarized/action potential?

(in neurons) 

Definition
  • stimulus causes a + charge in membrane potential near the axon
  • Na+open
  • K+ close
  • Na+ floods into axon
  • -70mV → +40mV
Term

what are the steps to repolarization?

(in nuerons) 

Definition
  • Na+ close
  • K+ open
  • Na+/K+ pump activates
  • +40mV → -70mV
Term
what are the parts of the outer ear?
Definition

Auricle/pinna

tympanic membrane

ossicular chain

eustachian tube 

 

Term

what does the auricle/pinna do?

(in the ear) 

Definition

collects sound

helps in sound localization

direct sound to eardrum 

Term
what does the tympanic membrane/eardrum do?
Definition

forms boundary between outer and middle ear

vibrates in response to sound 

Term

what makes up the ossicular chain?

(in an ear) 

Definition

malleus/hammer

incus/anvil

stapes/stirrup

theyre the smallest bones in the ear and vibrate when the eardrum vibrates 

Term

what does the eustachian tube do?

(in the ear) 

Definition

connects middle ear to the back of throat

equalizes air pressure

closed except during yawning or swallowing

not a part of the hearing process 

Term
what are the structures of the inner ear?
Definition

the cochlea

the vestibular system (3 semicircular canals)

hair cells 

Term

what is the cochlea?

(in the ear)  

Definition

a snail shaped organ w/ series of fluid filled tunnels

converts mechanical energy into electrical energy

 

Term

what is the vestibular system?

(in the ear) 

Definition

3 semi circular canals

controls balance

NOT part of hearing process 

Term
what do hair cells do in the ear?
Definition

i dont understand what i wrote but here it is

frequency-specific

high pitched sound-base of cochlea

low pitched sounds-apex of cochlea 

Term
what can cause deafness?
Definition

injury

disease

genetic problems 

Term
what are the 2 main types of deafness?
Definition

conductive

nerve 

Term
what is conductive deafness?
Definition

failure of 3 tiny bones in middle ear (ossicular chain) to pass along sound waves to inner ear

or

failure of eardrum to vibrate 

Term
what is nerve deafness?
Definition

caused by disease, trauma, disruptive event targeting cochlea nerve

or

electrical impulses cannot reach the brain 

Term
how does a hearing aid work?
Definition

the microphone picks up sound and sends it to

processor, which amplifies the signal

the receivor directs sound into the ear canal 

Term
what is the process of hearing?
Definition
  1. sound enters the ear and strikes eardrum, causing it to vibrate
  2. vibration → 3 middle ear bones (ossicular chain)
  3. vibrations create waves in fluidin cochlea of inner ear
    • small hairs in cochlea bend → sends impulses to auditory nerve
  4. nerve sends the information to the brain
Term
what is ecology?
Definition
the study of interactions of organisms with other organisms and with the environment
Term
what are abiotic factors?
Definition
the non-living factors that affect an organism
Term
what are biotic factors?
Definition
the living factors that affect an organism
Term
what is habitat?
Definition
where organisms live and interact
Term
the greater the number of species, the greater the ____________
Definition
biodiversity
Term
what is a niche?
Definition
the combination of organism, habitat, and role
Term
what are the different levels after biosphere and ecosystem?
Definition

community

population

organism 

Term
what is the biosphere?
Definition

the thin volume of Earth and its atmosphere that supports life

from a few feet under the surface to where birds stop flying 

Term
what is the ecosystem?
Definition
all the living organisms and non living factors found in one place
Term
what is a community?
Definition
all of the interacting organisms living in an area
Term
what is a population?
Definition
all the members of ONE species in an area
Term
what is an organism?
Definition
an individual living thing
Term
what is symbiosis
Definition

any close relationship or association between members of 2 or more species

 

Term
what are the 3 types of symbiosis?
Definition

commensalism

mutualism

parasitism 

Term
what is mutualism?
Definition
2 organisms BOTH benefit from living together
Term
what is commensalism?
Definition

when one species is benefited but the other is not harmed

(doesnt care) 

Term
what is parasitism?
Definition
when one species (the parasite) benefits and the other (the host) is harmed
Term
what is an autotroph?
Definition

a producer

makes its own food

(i.e. plants) 

Term
what is a heterotroph?
Definition

a consumer

must obtain food

(i.e. humans) 

Term
what does a herbivore eat?
Definition
plants
Term
what does a carnivore eat?
Definition
meat
Term
what does an omnivore eat?
Definition
plants and meat
Term
where does a detritivore get its energy from?
Definition
gets energy from dead + organic wastes
Term
what is a decomposer?
Definition
an organism that causes decay
Term
what do food chains do?
Definition
trace the path of energy linear trophic relationships
Term
what is a food web?
Definition

interconnected food chains

more realistic because organsims usually feed on different things 

Term
how much is energy reduced by each time it goes to a new level?
Definition
10%
Term
what is population size?
Definition
total number of individuals in a population
Term
what is population density?
Definition
number of individuals in a population in a given area
Term
what is growth rate?
Definition
the birth rate - death rate
Term
what is dispersion and what are the 3 types of dispersion?
Definition

the way the individuals of a population are arranged in space

random

even

clumped 

Term
what are density dependent factors?
Definition

limited resources whose rates of depletion depend of the density of the population using them

(i.e. food, water) 

Term
what are density independent factors?
Definition

factors unaffected by density

these affect the fgrowth of populations

(i.e. climate, geography) 

Term
what is the carrying capacity?
Definition
the number of individuals in a population the environment can sustain
Term
what is a population model?
Definition
a hypothetical population that attempt to exhibit the key characteristics of a real population
Term
what are the two population models?
Definition

exponential model- "J" shaped curve showing a rapid increase in population size

logistic model- the population model in which exponential growth is limited by density dependent factors 

Term
what is a r-strategist?     
Definition
an opportunistic population where the population denstiy fluctuates, usually in open habitats with little competition
Term
what are k-strategists?
Definition

a population in equilibrium, its density hovers near carrying capacity

 

Term
what is the maturation time for r and k strategists?
Definition

r=short

k= long 

Term
life span for r and k strategists
Definition

r=short

k=long 

Term

what is the death rate,

number of reproductive events,

timing of reproductive events,

how many offspring they have at once,

the size of offspring/egg,

and the amount of parental care

for r and k strategists?

Definition

death rate

r=high

k= usually low

 number of reproductive events

r=one

k=one or more 

timing of reproductive events

r=very early

k=later in life

number of offpring

r=many

k=few

size of offspring

r=small

k=large

amount of parental care

r=none

k= often extensive 

Term
what happened in the Scopes trial of July 1925?
Definition

a "subsitute" teacher was put in jail for teaching about evolution in the classroom

(her was actually a lawyer for the american civil liberties union)

in 1968 the supreme court changed the law so....

teaching creationism is ILLEGAL

and

teaching evolution is LEGAL 

Term
what was the big bang?
Definition

in the beginning, all matter in the universe was condensed into a tiny little ball

then....

BANG

it expanded to fill up the universe 

Term
how did the solar system start?
Definition

first...it was an enormous cloud of dust and gas

began to condense because of gravity

the heat and pressure increased nuclear fusion

H atoms →  He atoms

a star is formed

planets condense but do not erupt into nuclear fusion 

 

Term
do stars die?
Definition

NO

they blow up 

Term
______________in the mantle produce forces which move the crust
Definition
CONVECTION CURRENTS
Term
what is one evidence of pangea?
Definition

glossopteris, the plant

or whatever else you remember 

Term
what are all the intervals of time ina geological time scale?
Definition

eras

periods

epochs 

Term
how was the age of the Earth determined?
Definition

radioactive dating

(its 4.5 billion years old) 

Term
what are the 2 types of dating (fossils)?
Definition

relative

absolute 

Term
what is relative dating?
Definition
when the age of an object is determined by dating something near it
Term
what is absolute dating?
Definition
determining the age of an object by dating the actual object
Term
what is the law of super position?
Definition

the layers of soil that lie above an object are younger than the layers below the object

 

Term
what does an unstable isotope do?
Definition
releases energy and particles in the form of radiation
Term
what is a half life?
Definition
the amount of time it takes for half of the mass of a radioactive isotope to decay into its daughter element
Term

how do you find the number of half lives?

(the formula/equation) 

Definition
(time elasped)(1 half-life/ half life factor)
Term

what are the two kinds of fossils?

 

Definition

imprints

casts 

Term

how does the fossil record support evolution?

 

Definition

the oldest fossils are the simplest

the youngest fossils are the most complex 

Term
what are homologous structures?
Definition

similar structures that are derived from the same body part

(if they are similar, it is assumed the species are related)

 

Term
what are vestigial structures?
Definition
body parts that are reduced in size and appear to serve a reduced function or no function
Term
what is an analogous structure?
Definition
similer structures that do NOT indicate evolutionary relationships
Term
what is the theory of embryonic developement?
Definition

an organsim develops in the same way as its ancestors

(is this true or not?)

Term
how does DNA sequencing support evolution?
Definition
organisms that are related have some of the same DNA sequence
Term
what is evolution based on?
Definition

time

mutations 

Term
what are the 3 different variable traits?
Definition

morphological

physiological

behavioral 

Term
what are the sources of variations?
Definition
  • genetic mutation (only one that can create a new species)
  • abnormal changes in chromosome shape or number
  • crossing over or genetic recombination during meiosis
  • independent assortment of chromosomes during meiosis
  • fertilization between different gametes
Term
what are the types of competition?
Definition

intraspecific

interspecific 

Term
what is intraspecific competition?
Definition

comepetition between two or more individuals of the same population for resources

 

Term
what is interspecific competition?
Definition

2 species competing for the same (limited) resource

(they impact each others population) 

Term

on the Galapogos Islands, there are 13 different species of finches

what did they evolve from? 

Definition

a small flock of

grassquits 

Term

in natural selection, what does the environment do?

 

Definition

limits the growth of populations by increasing the rate of death or decreasing the rate or reproduction

(or BOTH) 

Term
what did darwin call natural selection?
Definition
the different degrees of successful reproduction among the organisms in a population
Term
INFORMATION
Definition
a population of organisms adapt to their environment as their proportion for favorable traits increases
Term
what kind of process is natural selection?
Definition
passive
Term
INFORMATION
Definition

the environment "selects" the trais that will increase in a population

the selection conditions change as the demands of the environment change 

Term
what are the types of natural selection?
Definition

stabilizing selection

directional selection

disruptive selection 

sexual selection 

Term
what is stabilizing selection?
Definition
when individuals with the average form are favored
Term
what is directional selection?
Definition
when individuals from ONE extreme are favored
Term
what is disruptive selection?
Definition

when individuals from BOTH extremes are favored

(they dont have to HAVE both extreme traits, thats not possible, like they cant be tall AND short, its just that really TALL and really SHORT people are favored) 

Term
what is sexual selection?
Definition

when there is a difference in what happens to males and females in a selection

(i.e. males have to have LARGE feathers, and females have to have  BRIGHT feathers)

Term
what is the Hardy-Weinberg principle of genetic equilibrium?
Definition

the stability of gene frequencies across generations

(pheotypes change)

i think thats it, but im not sure 

Term
what are the five conditions for genetic equilibrium?
Definition
  1. large population
  2. isolated population
  3. no net changes (mutations)
  4. random mating
  5. all genotypes have to be equal in reproductive success
Term
what are the equations for h-w?
Definition

p+q=1

p2 +2pq+q2=1

Term

what is evolution?

(im not sure if this is already a card or not) 

Definition
when a population's genetic material, allele or genotype frequency changes
Term
what is divergence?
Definition
when allele or genetic frequencies begin to change
Term
what can result in divergence?
Definition
any violation of the five conditions necessary for H-W equilibrium
Term
how often do mutations occur?
Definition

constantly at a very low rate

(under normal conditions) 

Term
what increases the rate of mutation?
Definition
mutagens
Term
how can mutations affect the genetic equilibrium?
Definition
by producing new alleles
Term
what is gene flow?
Definition
the change in gene frequency due to the immigration or emigration of individuals in the population
Term
what is genetic drift?
Definition

when allele frequencies in a pop change due to RANDOM events

(especially affects medium/small populations) 

Term
why is mating never random?
Definition

geographical proximity

 mate selection due to certain similar characteristics

(assortive mating)

 

Term
what does non-random mating affect?
Definition

genotypes

(the overall allele frequencies are not affected) 

Term
what is isolation?
Definition
when 2 parts of a formerly interbreeding population stop interbreeding
Term
what are the 2 types of isolation?
Definition

geographical

reproductive

(disruptive selection,

prezygotic,

postzygotic) 

Term
what is geographical isolation?
Definition

physical separation

(i.e. river, canyon) 

Term
what is reproductive isolation?
Definition
barriers to successful reproduction between 2 groups in the same population
Term
what is prezygotic reproductive isolation?
Definition

isolation before fertilization

(i.e. incompatible behavior →  different mating call)

Term
what is postzygotic reproductive isolation?
Definition

isolation after fertilization

(i.e. offspring die or are sterile, cannot reproduce) 

Term
what is the morphological concept for identifying different species?
Definition

based on external structure and appearance

positive-easy to use

negative-does not allow for phenotypic variation 

Term
what is the biological concept in identifying different species?
Definition

a species is a population of organisms that can successfully interbreed but cannot with other groups

positive-good for living organisms

negative-useless for extinct species and for organisms that reproduce asexually 

Term
what are the 2 different beliefs for rates of speciation?
Definition

gradualism-Darwin

punctuated equilibrium 

Term
what is gradualism?
(rates of speciation)
Definition

the world started with one 1 species which evolved into 2 then 3 and so on

its VERY gradual 

Term
what is punctuated equilibrium?
Definition
speciation that occurs suddenly by rapid shifts in the form of organisms followed by periods of no change
Term
what is coevolution?
Definition

changes in 2 or more species in close association with each other

(i.e. prey changes then predator has to change) 

Term
what is convergent evolution?
Definition
2 organisms that appear the same but aren't related
Term
what is divergent evolution?
Definition
when 2 or more related populations become more and more different
Term
what is taxonomy?
Definition
the branch of biology that names and groups organisms according to their characteristics and evolutionary history
Term
what are the classifications for living things?
Definition

kingdom

phyla

classes

orders

families

genus

species 

Term
what is phylogenetic taxonomy?
Definition
working to develop a phylogenetic tree
Term
what does a phylogenetic tree consider?
Definition

the fossil record

morphology

embryological patterns

chomosomes(karyotypes)

macromolecules 

Term
what is a cladistic taxonamy?
Definition
a new system of phylogenetic
Term
what does a cladistic taxonomy use and what does it do?
Definition

uses:derived characteristics

for: to establish evolutionary relatinships 

Term
what is a cladogram?
Definition
a branching diagram showing the cladistic relationship between a number of species
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