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| a field of study devoted to understanding constancy and change throughout the lifespan |
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| an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior |
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| A ________ continued existence depends on scientific verification |
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| a process of gradually augmenting the same types of skills that were there to begin with |
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| a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times |
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| qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific periods of development |
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| In stage theories, ________ is like climbing a staircase, with each step corresponding to a more mature, re-organized way of functioning |
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| unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of change |
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| Theorists who emphasize _______— that individuals who are high or low in a characteristic ( such as verbal ability, anxiety, or sociability) will remain so at later ages— typically stress the importance of ________ |
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| change is possible and even likely if new experiences support it |
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| Four assumptions make up this broader view: that development is ( 1) lifelong, ( 2) multidimen-sional and multidirectional, ( 3) highly plastic, and ( 4) affected by multiple, interacting forces |
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| The one- celled organism transforms into a human baby with remarkable capacities to adjust to life outside the womb |
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| Dramatic changes in the body and brain support the emergence of a wide array of motor, perceptual, and intellectual capacities and first intimate ties to others |
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| During the “ play years,” motor skills are refined, thought and language expand at an astounding pace, a sense of morality is evident, and children establish ties with peers |
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| The school years are marked by improved athletic abilities; more logical thought processes; mastery of basic literacy skills; advances in self- understanding, morality, and friendship; and the beginnings of peer- group membership |
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| Puberty leads to an adult- sized body and sexual maturity. Thought becomes abstract and idealistic and school achievement more serious. |
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| Most young people leave home, complete their education, and begin full- time work. Major concerns are developing a career, forming an intimate partnership, and marrying, rearing children, or establishing other lifestyles |
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| Many people are at the height of their careers and attain leadership positions. They must also help their children begin independent lives and their parents adapt to aging. They become more aware of their own mortality |
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| People adjust to retirement, to decreased physical strength and health, and often to the death of a spouse. They reflect on the meaning of their lives |
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| From a ________ perspective, the challenges and adjustments of development are multi-dimensional— affected by an intricate blend of biological, psychological, and social forces |
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| __________is also multidirectional, in at least two ways. First, development is not limited to improved performance. Rather, at every period, it is a joint expression of growth and decline |
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| change is __________ within each domain of development. Although some qualities of Sofie’s cognitive functioning ( such as mem-ory) probably declined in her mature years, her knowledge of both English and French undoubtedly grew throughout her life |
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| the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development |
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| Events that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last are called ______ influences |
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| _______ influences explain why people born around the same time— called a cohort— tend to be alike in ways that set them apart from people born at other times |
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| _________ influences are events that are irregular: They happen to just one person or a few people and do not follow a predictable timetable |
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| Because they occur haphazardly, ________ events are difficult for researchers to capture and study |
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| psychoanalytic perspective |
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| people move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. How these conflicts are resolved determines the person’s ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety |
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| emphasizes that how parents manage their child’s sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development |
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| The ______, the largest portion of the mind, is the source of basic biological needs and desires |
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| The ______, the conscious, rational part of personality, emerges in early infancy to redirect the id’s impulses so they are discharged in acceptable ways |
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| Between 3 and 6 years of age, the _______, or conscience, develops through interactions with parents, who insist that children conform to the values of society |
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| Erikson emphasized that in addition to mediating between id impulses and super-ego demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills at each stage that make the individual an active, contributing member of society |
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| The new ego directs the baby’s sucking activities toward breast or bottle. If oral needs are not met appropriately, the individual may develop such habits as thumb sucking, fingernail biting, and pencil chewing in childhood and overeating and smoking in later life |
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| Toddlers and preschoolers enjoy holding and releasing urine and feces. Toilet training becomes a major issue between parent and child. If parents insist that children be trained before they are ready, or if they make too few demands, conflicts about anal control may appear in the form of extreme orderliness and cleanliness or messiness and disorder |
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| As preschoolers take pleasure in genital stimulation, Freud’s Oedipus conflict for boys and Electra conflict for girls arise: Children feel a sexual desire for the other- sex parent. To avoid punishment, they give up this desire and adopt the same- sex parent’s characteristics and values. As a result, the superego is formed, and children feel guilty each time they violate its standards. |
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| Sexual instincts die down, and the superego develops further. The child acquires new social values from adults and same- sex peers outside the family |
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| With puberty, the sexual impulses of the phallic stage reappear. If development has been successful during earlier stages, it leads to marriage, mature sexuality, and the birth and rearing of children. This stage extends through adulthood |
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| Unlike _______, _______ pointed out that normal development must be understood in relation to each culture’s life situation |
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| From warm, responsive care, infants gain a sense of trust, or confidence, that the world is good. Mistrust occurs when infants have to wait too long for comfort and are handled harshly. Basic trust versus mistrust |
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| Using new mental and motor skills, children want to choose and decide for themselves. Parents can foster autonomy by permitting reasonable free choice and not forcing or shaming the child. Autonomy versus shame and doubt |
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| Through make- believe play, children explore the kind of person they can become. Initiative— a sense of ambition and responsibility— develops when parents support their child’s new sense of purpose. When parents demand too much self- control, they induce excessive guilt. Initiative versus guilt |
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| At school, children develop the capacity to work and cooperate with others. Inferiority develops when negative experiences at home, at school, or with peers lead to feelings of incompetence. Industry versus inferiority |
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| The adolescent tries to answer the questions, Who am I, and what is my place in society? By exploring values and vocational goals, the young person forms a personal identity. The negative outcome is confusion about future adult roles. Identity versus role confusion |
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| Young people work on establishing intimate ties to others. Because of earlier disappointments, some individuals cannot form close relationships and remain isolated. Intimacy versus isolation |
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| Middle- aged adults contribute to the next generation through child rearing, caring for other people, or productive work. The person who fails in these ways feels an absence of meaningful accomplishment. Generativity versus stagnation |
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| Elders reflect on the kind of person they have been. Integrity results from feeling that life was worth living as it happened. Those who are dissatisfied with their lives fear death. Integrity versus despair |
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| directly observable events— stimuli and responses— are the appropriate focus of study |
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| concluded that environment is the supreme force in development and that adults can mold children’s behavior by carefully controlling stimulus– response associations. He viewed development as a continuous process, consisting of a gradual increase with age in the number and strength of these associations |
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| Several kinds of social learning theory emerged. The most influential, devised by American psychologist ______( 1925–), emphasizes modeling, also known as imitation or observational learning, as a powerful source of development. |
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| consists of procedures that combine conditioning and modeling to eliminate undesirable behaviors and increase desirable responses |
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| with his emphasis on cognition, is unique among theorists whose work grew out of the behaviorist tradition in granting children and adults an active role in their own learning |
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| cognitive-developmental theory |
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| children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world. |
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| Sensorimotor Birth– 2 years |
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| Infants “ think” by acting on the world with their eyes, ears, hands, and mouth. As a result, they invent ways of solving sensorimotor problems, such as pulling a lever to hear the sound of a music box, finding hidden toys, and putting objects into and taking them out of containers. |
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| Preoperational 2– 7 years |
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| Preschool children use symbols to represent their earlier sensorimotor discoveries. Development of language and make- believe play takes place. However, thinking lacks the logic of the two remaining stages. |
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| Concrete operational 7– 11 years |
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| Children’s reasoning becomes logical. School- age children understand that a certain amount of lemonade or play dough remains the same even after its appearance changes. They also organize objects into hierarchies of classes and subclasses. However, children think in a logical, organized fashion only when dealing with concrete information they can perceive directly. |
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| Formal operational 11 years on |
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| The capacity for abstract, systematic thinking enables adolescents, when faced with a problem, to start with a hypothesis, deduce testable inferences, and isolate and combine variables to see which inferences are confirmed. Adolescents can also evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real- world circumstances. |
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| the human mind might also be viewed as a symbol- manipulating system through which information flows— a perspective called __________ |
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| developmental cognitive neuroscience |
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| It brings together researchers from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing person’s cognitive processing and behavior patterns |
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| is concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history |
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| A _______ is a time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and in which the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences |
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| evolutionary developmental psychology |
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| seeks to understand the adaptive value of specieswide cognitive, emotional, and social competencies as those competencies change with age |
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| _______ psychologists want to understand the entire person– environment system |
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| focuses on how culture— the values, beliefs, customs, and skills of a social group— is transmitted to the next generation |
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| believed that as adults and more expert peers help children master culturally meaningful activities, the communication between them becomes part of children’s thinking |
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| Vygotsky viewed ________ development as a socially mediated process, in which children depend on assis-tance from adults and more- expert peers as they tackle new challenges |
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| Ecological systems theory |
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| views the person as developing within a complex system of relation-ships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment |
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| The innermost level of the environment, the ______, consists of activities and interaction patterns in the person’s immediate surroundings |
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| Bronfenbrenner’s, mesosystem |
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| The second level of ______ model, the _______, encompasses connections between microsystems. |
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| The __________ consists of social settings that do not contain the developing person but nevertheless affect experiences in immediate settings |
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| the _______, consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources |
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| Bronfenbrenner called the temporal dimension of his model the ________ |
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