Term
| sum of all chemical reactions within an organism |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| The sum of all decomposition reactions within an organism. Exothermic reactions. |
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Term
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Definition
| The sum of all the synthesis reactions in an organism. Endothermic reactions. |
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Term
| ___ is the ability to do work |
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Definition
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Term
| energy that is stored; waiting to do work |
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Definition
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Term
| energy of motion, action, doing |
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Definition
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Term
| First Law of Thermodynamics |
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Definition
| Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can change form |
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Term
| second law of thermodynamics |
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Definition
| every time energy changes form; there is an increase in entropy. |
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Term
| the measure of disorder; the amount of energy no longer available to do work |
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Definition
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Term
| unusable energy, aka lost energy, is ____ |
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Definition
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Term
| the amount of energy required to ____ is ___ released when the bond is broken |
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Definition
| form a bond; the same amount of energy (less that lost as heat) |
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Term
| ___ reactions are spontaneous reactions beacuse___ |
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Definition
| catabolic; energy is released |
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Term
| ___ reactions are not spontaneous because ____ |
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Definition
| anabolic; they require energy |
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Term
| a series of anabolic or catabolic reactions is called a ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| cells have ___, which break larger molecules into smaller products |
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Definition
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Term
| cells have ___, which form large molecules from the smaller products of catabolism. |
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Definition
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Term
| when catabolic pathways break down large molecules ____. |
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Definition
| they release energy, therefore they are exergenic. |
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Term
| Cells store some of the released energy in ___, though much is ___. |
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Definition
| the bonds of ATP; lost as heat |
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Term
| another result of the breakdown of large molecules by catabolic pathways is the production of numerous smaller molecules, some of which are ___. |
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Definition
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Term
| some organisms such as e coli can synthesize everything in their cells from just ____ |
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Definition
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Term
| Catabolic pathways, but not necessarily individual catabolic reactions, may produce ____ |
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Definition
| ATP, metabolites, or both |
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Term
| Because building anything requires energy, anabolic pathways are ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| anabolic reactions require ___ |
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Definition
| more energy than they release |
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Term
| the energy required for anabolic pathways usually comes from ___ |
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Definition
| ATP molecules produced during catabolism. |
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Term
| ___ involves pathways that break down macromolecules to supply molecular building blocks and energy in the form of ATP |
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Definition
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Term
| ____ use the building blocks and ATP to synthesize macromolecules needed for growth and reproduction |
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Definition
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Term
| metabolic reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from a molecule that donates an electron are called ___ |
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Definition
| oxidaion reduction reactions, or redox reactions |
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Term
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Definition
| Oxidation Involves Loss Reduction Involves Gain. |
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Term
| electron acceptor is said to be ___ because |
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Definition
| reduced; their gain in electrons reduces their overall electrical charge. |
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Term
| molecules that lose electrons are said to be ___ because ___ |
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Definition
| oxidized; frequently their electrons are donated to oxygen atoms. |
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Term
| Reduction and oxidation reactions always happen ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| A molecule may be reduced 2 ways: |
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Definition
1. gaining either a simple electron
2. gaining an electron that is part of a hydrogen atom |
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Term
| A molecule may be oxidized three ways |
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Definition
1. losing a simple electron
2. by losing a hydrogen atom
3. gaining an oxygen atom with its electrons |
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Term
| Electrons rarely exist freely in the ___; instead they ___ |
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Definition
| cytoplasm; orbit atomic nuclei |
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Term
| cells use ___ to carry electrons |
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Definition
| electron carrier molecules |
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Term
| 3 important electron carrier molecules |
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Definition
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Term
| one of the electrons carried by nad+ or nadp+ is part of a ___; forming ___ |
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Definition
| hydrogen atom; NADH and NADPH |
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Term
| FAD carries ___ as hydrogen atoms as ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| Nutrients contain energy, but that energy is spread throughout their chemical bonds and is generally ___ |
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Definition
| not concentrated enough for use in anabolic reactions |
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Term
| During catabolism, organisms release ___ |
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Definition
| energy from nutrients that can then be concentrated and stored in high energy phosphate bonds of molecules such as atp |
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Term
| process by which inorganic phosphate is added to a substrate |
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Definition
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Term
| phosphorylation converts ADP to ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| involves the transfer of phosphate to ADP from another phosphorylated organic compound |
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Definition
| Substrate level phosphorylation |
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Term
| process in which energy from redox reactions of respiration is used to attach inorganic phosphate to ADP |
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Definition
| oxidative phosphorylation |
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Term
| process in which light energy is used to phosphorylate ADP with inorganic phosphate |
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Definition
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Term
| After ADP is phosphorylated to produce ATP, anabolic pathways ___ |
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Definition
| use some energy of ATP by breaking a phosphate bond |
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Term
| the cyclical interconversion of ADP and ATP functions somewhat like ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| ADP molecules can be recharged ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| In catabolic reactions, a bond must be ___ before it will break |
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Definition
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Term
| In anabolic reactions, reactants must ___ before bonds will form between them |
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Definition
| collide with sufficient energy |
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Term
| In anabolism, increasing ____ increases the number of collisions and produces more chemical reactions |
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Definition
| either the concentrations of the reactants or ambient temperatures |
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Term
| In living organisms, neither reactant concentration nor temperature is ___ |
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Definition
| usually high enough to ensure that bonds will form |
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Term
| The chemical reactions of life depend upon ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| chemicals that increase the likelihood of a reaction but are not permanently changed in the process |
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Definition
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Term
| Organic catalysts are known as ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| the names of enzymes usually end with the suffix ___, and often incorporate the name of the enzymes __ |
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Definition
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Term
| the molecule that an enzyme acts upon |
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Definition
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Term
| these enzymes catabolize molecules by adding water in a decomposition process known as hydrolysis |
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Definition
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Term
| enzymes used primarily in the depolymerization of macromolecules |
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Definition
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Term
| rearrange the atoms withing a molecule but do not add or remove anything (so they are neither catabolic or anabolic) |
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Definition
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Term
| enzymes that join two molecules together (and are thus anabolic) |
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Definition
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Term
| enzymes that often use energy supplied by ATP |
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Definition
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Term
| split large molecules (and are thus catabolic) withous using water in the process |
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Definition
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Term
| enzymes that remove electrons (oxidize) from or add electrons (reduce) to various substrates |
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Definition
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Term
| oxioreductases are used in ___ pathways |
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Definition
| both catabolic and anabolic |
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Term
| enzymes that transfer functional groups (such as amino groups, phosphate groups, or two carbon groups) between molecules |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| The protein portion of protein enzymes that is inactive unless bound to one or more cofactors |
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Definition
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Term
| Inorganic ions or organic molecules that are essential for enzyme action. |
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Definition
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Term
| all are either vitamins or contain vitamins, which are organic molecules that are required for metabolism but cannot be synthesized by certain organisms |
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Definition
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Term
| some ___ bind with inorganic cofactors, coenzymes, or both |
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Definition
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Term
| the binding of an apoenzyme and its cofactor(s) forms an active enzyme called a ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| not all enzymes are proteinaceous, some are ___ |
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Definition
| RNA molecules called ribozymes |
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Term
| In eukaryotes, they process other RNA molecules by removing sections of RNA and splicing the remaining pieces together |
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Definition
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Term
| functional core of a ribosome is a riboenzymes, therefore ___ |
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Definition
| given that ribosomes make all proteins, ribosomal enzymes make protein enzymes |
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Term
| enzymes catalyze reactions by ___ |
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Definition
| lowering the activation energy needed to trigger a chemical reaction |
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Term
| Whereas heat can provide energy to trigger reactions, the temps needed to reach Ea for most metabolic reactions are often to high to allow cells to survive, so ____ |
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Definition
| enzymes are needed if metabolism is to occur. This is true regardless of whether the enzyme is s protein or RNA, or whether the chemical reaction is anabolic or catabolic |
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Term
| The activity of enzymes depends on the ____ |
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Definition
| closeness of fit between the functional sites of an enzyme and its substrate |
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Term
| The shape of an enzymes functional site is called its ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| the active site is ______ of the substrate |
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Definition
| complementary to the shape |
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Term
| Generally, the shapes and locations of only ____ or ___ determines the shape of an enzyme's active site |
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Definition
| a few amino acids; nucleotides |
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Term
| A change in a single component of an enzyme - for instance through mutation - can render an enzyme ____ |
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Definition
| less effective or even completely nonfunctional |
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Term
| ____, which is critical to enzyme activity, has been likened to the fit between a lock and a key |
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Definition
| enzyme substrate specificity |
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Term
| enzymes ____ when they bind to their substrate |
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Definition
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Term
| The lock and key analogy of enzyme substrate specificity is called the ____ |
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Definition
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Term
| Some enzymes appear to bring ___ into sufficiently close proximity to ___ |
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Definition
| reactants; enable a bond to form |
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Term
| other enzymes change the ____, inducing ____ |
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Definition
| shape of a reactant; a bond to be broken |
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Term
| Many factors influence the rate of enzymatic reactions, including: |
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Definition
| temp, pH, enzyme and substrate concentrations, and the presence of inhibitors |
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Term
| the active sites of enzymes change ___ as ___. |
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Definition
| shape; temperature changes |
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Term
| If the temp rises to high, or falls to low, an enzyme ____ |
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Definition
| is often no longer able to achieve a fit with its substrate |
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Term
| The optimum temperature for the enzymes in the human body is ___. |
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Definition
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Term
| organisms that grow best at temperatures above 80 celsius |
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Definition
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Term
| If the temperature rises beyond a certain critical point, the ____ within an enzyme will break and the enzyme will ___ |
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Definition
| noncovalent bonds (such as hydrogen and amino acids); denature |
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Term
| ___ enzymes lose their specific 3-D structure, so they are no longer functional |
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Definition
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Term
| Denaturation is said to be ___ when an enzyme cannot regain its original 3-D structure once conditions return to normal |
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Definition
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Term
| In other cases, denaturation is ___ - the denatured enzyme's noncovalent bonds reform upon the return of normal conditions |
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Definition
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Term
| Extremes of __ also denature enzymes when ions released from ___ and ___ interfere with ____ and distort and disrupt an enzyme's secondary and tertiary structures. |
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Definition
| pH; acids; bases; hydrogen bonding |
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Term
| each enzyme has an optimal ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| Changing the __ provides a way to control the growth of unwanted microorganisms by _____. |
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Definition
| pH; denaturing their proteins |
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Term
| Another factor that determines the rate of enzymatic activity within cells is the ______ |
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Definition
| concentration of substrate present |
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Term
| As substrate concentration increases, ____ |
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Definition
| enzymatic activity increases as more and more enzyme active sites bind more and more substrate molecules. |
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Term
| eventually, when all enzyme active sites have bound substrate, _____ |
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Definition
| the enzymes have reached their saturation point, and the addition of more substrate will not increase the rate of enzymatic activity. |
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Term
| enzymatic activity can be influenced by a variety of inhibitory substances that ___ |
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Definition
| block an enzyme's active site |
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Term
| enzymatic inhibitors may be ___ or ___, and ____ |
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Definition
| competitive; noncompetitive; do not denature enzymes |
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Term
| ____ are shaped such that they fit into an enzyme's active site and thus prevent normal substrate from binding |
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Definition
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Term
| competitive inhibitors do not undergo a ____ to form products |
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Definition
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Term
| competitive inhibitors can bind ___ or ___ to the active site. |
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Definition
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Term
| ____ binding results in total loss of enzymatic activity; ___ competition can be overcome by an increase in the concentration of the substrate molecules, which increases the likelihood that active sites will be filled with substrate instead of inhibitor. |
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Definition
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Term
| noncompetitive inhibitors do not bind to the active site, but instead prevent enzymatic activity by ____ |
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Definition
| binding to an allosteric site located elsewhere on the enzyme |
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Term
| binding at an allosteric site ____ |
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Definition
| alters the shape of the active site so that the substrate cannot be bound |
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Term
| allosteric control of enzyme activity can take two forms: |
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Definition
| allosteric (noncompetitive) inhibition and excitatory allosteric control |
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Term
| ____ halts enzymatic activity by binding at an allosteric that alters the shape of the active site to that the substrate cannot be bound |
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Definition
| allosteric (noncompetitive) inhibition |
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Term
| In ___, the binding of certain activator molecules to an allosteric site causes a change in shape of the active site, which activates an otherwise inactive enzyme |
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Definition
| excitatory allosteric control |
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Term
| cells often control the action of enzymes through ____ |
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Definition
| feedback inhibition/negative feedback/end-product inhibition |
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Term
| allosteric feedback inhibition functions in much the way a ___ |
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Definition
| thermostat controls a heater. |
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Term
| in metabolic feedback inhibition, the end product of a series of reactions is ____ |
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Definition
| an allosteric inhibitor of an enzyme |
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Term
| many organisms oxidize ___ as their energy source for anabolic reactions |
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Definition
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Term
| Glucose is catabolized via one of two processes: |
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Definition
1. cellular respiration
2. fermentation |
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Term
| a process that results in the complete breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide and water |
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Definition
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Term
| results in organic waste products |
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Definition
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Term
| a process that catabolizes a single molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvic acid (pyruvate) and results in a small amount of ATP production |
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Definition
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Term
| both cellular respiration and fermentation begin with ____ |
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Definition
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Term
| After glycolysis, respiration continues via the ___ and the ___, which results in a significant amount of ATP production |
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Definition
| krebs cycle; electron transport chain |
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Term
| Because it lacks the krebs cycle and the etc, ____ results in the production of much less ATP than does respiration |
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Definition
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Term
| glycolysis is also called the ____, after the scientists who discovered it. |
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Definition
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Term
| ___ is the first step in the catabolism of glucose via both respiration and fermentation |
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Definition
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Term
| glycolysis involves the splitting of a ___ into ____ |
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Definition
| six carbon glucose molecule; two three carbon sugar molecules |
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Term
| when these three carbon molecules are ____, some of the energy released is stored in molecules of ATP |
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Definition
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Term
| glycolysis occurs in the ____ |
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Definition
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Term
| The three stages of glycolysis |
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Definition
1. energy investment stage
2. lysis stage.
3. Energy conserving stage |
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Term
| sum up what happens in glycolysis |
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Definition
| glucose is cleaved and ultimately transformed into two molecules of pyruvic acid. 4 ATPs are formed and two ATPs are used, so a net gain of two ATPs results. Two molecules of NAD+ are reduced to NADH. |
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Term
| in glycolysis, the high energy phosphate in PEP (one substrate) is transferred to an ADP molecule (second substrate) to form ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| the direct transfer of the phosphate between two substrates is known as ___ |
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Definition
| substrate level phosphorylation |
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Term
| In glycolysis, two ATP molecules are invested by substrate level phosphorylation to prime glucose for ___, and four molecules of ATP are produced |
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Definition
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Term
| 2 alternative to glycolysis |
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Definition
1. pentose phosphate pathway
2. entner-duodoroff pathway |
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Term
| ___ is named for the phosphorylated pentose (five carbon) sugars |
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Definition
| pentose phosphate pathway |
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Term
| ____ is primarily used for the production of precursor metabolites used in anabolic reactions, inculding the synthesis of nucleotides for nucleic acids, of certain amino acids, and of glucose by photosynthesis. |
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Definition
| pentose phosphate pathway |
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Term
| the pentose phosphate pathway also reduces _____ and nets ___ |
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Definition
| two molecules of NAD+ to NADPH; a single moleculeof ATP from each molecule of glucose |
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Term
| ____ is a necessary coenzyme for anabolic reactions that synthesize DNA nucleotides, steroids, and fatty acids |
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Definition
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Term
| Most bacteria use glycolysis, and the pentose phosphate pathway, but a few substitue the ___ for glycolysis |
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Definition
| entner - duodoroff pathway |
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Term
| this pathway is a series of reactions that catabolize glucose to pyruvic acid using different enzymes from those used in either glycolysis or the pentose phosphate pathway |
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Definition
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Term
| only a very few bacteria use the entner duodoroff pathway, these include the gram negative ___ and ___ |
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Definition
| pseudomonas aeruginosa; enterococcus faecalis |
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Term
| the entner duodoroff pathway nets ___ |
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Definition
| only a single molecule of ATP for each molecule of glucose, but it does yield precursor metabolits and NADPH |
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Term
| ___ is unavailable from glycolysis |
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Definition
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Term
| glucose is ___ in glycolysis |
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Definition
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Term
| after glucose is oxidized via glycolysis, or one of the alternate pathways, a cell uses the resultant ____ to complete either cellular respiration or fermentation |
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Definition
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Term
| a metabolic process that involves complete oxidation of substrate molecules and then production of ATP by a series of redox reactions |
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Definition
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Term
| 3 stages of cellular respiration |
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Definition
1. synthesis of acetyl-CoA
2. the Krebs cycle
3. a final series of redox reactions - an electron transport chain - that pass electrons to a chemical not derived from the cells metabolism |
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Term
| Before pyruvic acid can enter the Krebs cycle for respiration, it must first be converted to ___ |
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Definition
| acetyl-coenzyme A aka acetyl CoA |
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Term
| During the synthesis of Acetyl CoA, enzymes remove ___ and join ___ with a high energy bond. |
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Definition
| one carbon from pyruvic acid as Co2, the remaining two carbon acetate to Coenzyme A. |
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Term
| the removal of CO2 during the synthesis of Acetyle CoA is called ___, and requires a coenzyme derived from the vitamin ___. One molecule of ___ is also produced during this reaction |
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Definition
| decarboxylation; thiamine; NADH |
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Term
| Therefore, after the synthesis of Acetyl CoA, what has been produced |
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Definition
two molecules of Acetyle CoA
two molecules of CO2
two molecules of NADH |
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Term
| ___ is a series of eight enzymatically catalyzed reactions that transfer much of the stored to the coenzymes NAD+ and FAD. |
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Definition
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Term
| Krebs cycle, the two carbon atoms in acetate are ___, and the conenzymes are ___ |
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Definition
|
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Term
| where does the krebs cycle occur? |
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Definition
prokaryotes: in the cytoplasm
eukaryotes: the matrix of mitochondria |
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Term
| the krebs cycle, aka ___, because many of its components have three carboxyl groups. |
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Definition
|
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Term
| krebs cycle, aka ___, for the first compound formed in the cyle |
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Definition
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Term
| in the first step of the krebs cycle, the splitting of the high energy bond between acetate and coenzyme A releases enough energy to enable the binding of the freed two carbon acetate to a four carbon compound called oxaloacetic acid, this forms ____ |
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Definition
| the six carbon compound citric acid |
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Term
| for every two carbon atoms that enter the krebs cycle, ___ are lost to the environment. At this junction in the krebs cycle, all six carbon atoms have been lost to the environment: two as ___, and four in ___ |
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Definition
| two; CO2 molecules produced in decarboxylation of two molecules of pyruvic acid to form two Acetyl CoA molecules; four in CO2 molecules produced in decarboxylations in the two turns through the Krebs cycle (one molecule of Acetyl CoA enters the cycle at a time) |
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Term
| For every two molecules of Acetyl CoA that pass through the Krebs cycle, ____ |
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Definition
| two molecules of ATP are generated by substrate level phosphorylation. |
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Term
| krebs cycle, redox reactions reduce ___, ___ for every two molecules of Acetyle CoA that move through the cycle. |
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Definition
| FAD to FADH2 and NAD+ to NADH |
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Term
| __ molecules of NADH and ___ molecules of FADH2 are formed in the Krebs cycle |
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Definition
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Term
| the coenzymes are the most important molecules of respiration because they carry ____ |
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Definition
| a large amount of energy that is subsequently used to phosphorylate ADP to ATP |
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Term
| the most significant production of ATP does not occur through glycolysis or the krebs cycle, but rather through the stepwise release of energy from a series of redox reactions known as ____ |
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Definition
| an electron transport chain |
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Term
| an electron transport chain consists of a series of ____ molecules that pass electrons from one to another and ultimately to a _____ |
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Definition
| membrane bound carrier; final electron acceptor |
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Term
| in etc, energy from the electrons is used to actively transport (pump) ___ across the membrane, establishing a ____, that generates ATP via a process called ___ |
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Definition
| protons (H+); proton gradient; chemiosmosis |
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Term
| etc, ___ pass sequentially from one membrane bound carrier molecule to another, and eventually to a final electron acceptor |
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Definition
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Term
| etc, the electrons energy is used to pump ___ across the membrane |
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Definition
|
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Term
| where are electron transport chains located? |
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Definition
prokaryotes: cytoplasmic membrane
eukaryotes: inner mitochondrial membranes (cristae) |
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Term
| NADH and FADH2 donate electons as ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| etc, one molecule of ATP is produced for every ___ |
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Definition
| two protons that cross the membrane |
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Term
| the 4 categories of carrier molecules in the electron transport chain |
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Definition
1. flavoproteins
2. ubiquinones
3. metal-containing proteins
4. cytochromes |
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Term
| initial carrier molecule of electron transport chains of mitochondria |
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Definition
|
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Term
| all carrier molecules in the etc alternate between ____ |
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Definition
| the reduced and oxidized states |
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Term
| electrons carried by NADH enter the transport chain at a ___, and those carried by FADH2 are introduced via a ___. This explains why ____ |
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Definition
| flavoprotein; ubiquinone; more molecules of ATP are generated from NADH than FADH2 |
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Term
| in some organisms, the final electron acceptors are oxygen atoms, which with the addition of hydrogen atoms generates H2O; these organisms conduct ____ and are called ___ |
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Definition
| aerobic respiration; aerobes |
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Term
| ____ use other inorganic molecules instead of oxygen as the final electon acceptor and perform ____ |
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Definition
| anaerobes; anaerobic respiration |
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Term
in summary, glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway, the entner duodoroff pathway, and the krebs cycle strip electrons, which ___, from ___ molecules
and transfer them to _____. In turn, they _____. as the electrons move down the electron transport chain, ___ use the electons energy to ____ across the membrane |
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Definition
| energy; glucose; molecules of NADH and FADH2; pass the electrons to an electron transport chain; proton pumps; actively transport protons |
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Term
| ____ is a general term for the use of ion gradients to generate ATP; that is ATP is synthesized utilizing energy released by the flow of ions down their electrochemical gradient across a membrane |
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Definition
|
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Term
| chemicals diffuse from areas of ___ to areas of ___ and toward an ____. |
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Definition
| high concentration; low concentration; electrical charge opposite their own. |
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Term
| the composite of differences in concentration and charge is called an ____ |
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Definition
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Term
| chemiosmosis uses the potential energy of an electrochemical gradient to ____ |
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Definition
| phosphorylate ADP into ATP |
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Term
| even though chemiosmosis is a general principle with relevance to both ___ and ___, we consider it as it relates to ____ |
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Definition
| oxidative phosphorlation; photophosphorylation; oxidative phosphorylation |
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Term
| energy carried by FADH2 is used to transport ___ fewer protons |
|
Definition
|
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Term
| because lipid bilayers are impermeable to protons, the transport of protons to one side of the membrane creates an electrochemical gradient known as the ____, which has potential energy known as a ____ |
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Definition
| proton gradient; proton motive force |
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Term
| protons propelled by the proton motive force flow down their electrochemical gradient through protein channels, called ____, that phosphorylate molecules of ADP to ATP. such phosphorylation is termed ___ |
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Definition
| ATP synthases (ATPases); oxidative phosphorylation |
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Term
| is termed this because the proton gradient is created by the oxidation of components of an electron transport chain |
|
Definition
| oxidative phosphorylation |
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Term
| a prokaryote can theoretically yield ___ molecules of ATP |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the theoretical net maximum for eukaryotic cells is generally given as __ molecules of ATP |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why the difference in net ATP yield between prokaryotes and eukaryotes |
|
Definition
| because the energy from two ATP molecules is required to transport NADH generated by glycolysis in the cytoplasm into the mitochondria. |
|
|
Term
summary of prokaryotic aerobic respiration of one molecule of glucose
Glycolysis
synthesis of acetyl CoA and Krebs cycle
ETC
1. ATP produced
2. ATP used
3. NADH produced
4. FADH2 produced |
|
Definition
Glycolysis: 4,2,2,0
Krebs cycle: 2,0,8,2
ETC: 34,0,0,0 |
|
|
Term
| Electrons cannot flow down an etc unless ___ are available to receive them |
|
Definition
| oxidized carrier molecules |
|
|
Term
| the partial oxidation of sugar (or other metabolites) to release energy using an organic molecule from within the cell as an electron acceptor. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the essential function of fermentation is the regeneration of ____ for glycolysis, so that ADP molecules can be phosphorylated to ATP |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the major benefit of fermentation is that it allows _____ |
|
Definition
| ATP production to continue in the absence of cellular respiration |
|
|
Term
aerobic respiration
anaerobic respiration
fermentation
1. oxygen required
2. type of phosphorylation
3. final electon (hydrogen) acceptor
4. potential molecules of ATP produced |
|
Definition
aerobic: yes, substrate level and oxidative, oxygen, 36-38
anaerobic: no, substrate level and oxidative, NO3- SO4-2 CO3-2 or exogenous organic molecules, 2-36
fermentation: no, substrate level, endogenous organic molecules, 2 |
|
|
Term
| generally, proteins are too large to cross cytoplasmic membranes, so prokaryotes typically conduct the first step in the process of protein catabolism outside the cell by secreting ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| enzymes that split proteins into their constituent amino acids |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| reaction where special enzymes split off amino groups from amino acids once they are inside the cell. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| chemical formula for aerobic respiration |
|
Definition
C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38/36 ATP
(ideal yield) |
|
|
Term
| the ___ of a cell or virus is its entire genetic complement, including both its genes and nucleotide sequences that connect genes to one another |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| specific sequences of nucleotides that code for polypeptides or RNA molecules |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides each of which contains a ___, ____, and ___ |
|
Definition
| pentose sugar (deoxyribose or ribose), a phosphate, one of five nitrogenous bases |
|
|
Term
| what are the five nitrogenous bases |
|
Definition
| adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil |
|
|
Term
| the five nitrogenous bases hydrogen bond in specific ways called ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Complementary base pairs in DNA |
|
Definition
guanine and cytosine bond with one another with three hydrogen bonds.
adenine and thymine bond to one another with two hydrogen bonds. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| uracil bonds with adenine |
|
|
Term
| the carbon atoms of deoxyribose are numbered ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| one end of a DNA strand is called the 5 prime end because ___ |
|
Definition
| it terminates in a phosphate group attached to a 5 prime carbon |
|
|
Term
| the 3 prime end terminates with a ____ |
|
Definition
| hydroxyl group bound to a 3 prime carbon of deoxyribose. |
|
|
Term
| one strand of DNA runs ___,and the other runs ___, scientists say they are ___ |
|
Definition
| 3 prime to 5 prime, 5 prime to 3 prime, antiparallel |
|
|
Term
| the DNA of prokaryotic genes is found in two structures: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| prokaryotic cells package the main portion of their DNA, along with associated molecules of protein and RNA, as one or two distinct ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| prokaryotic cells have a single copy of each chromosome and are called ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a typical bacterial chromosome consists of a circular molecule of DNA localized in a region of the cytoplasm called the ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| no membrane surrounds a ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in addition to chromosomes, many bacterial cells contain one or more ___, which are small molecules that replicte independantly of the chromosome. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| each plasmid carries info required for its own ___, and often for one or more ____ |
|
Definition
| replication; cellular traits |
|
|
Term
| typically, genes carried on ___ are not essential for normal metabolism, growth, or cellular respiration, but can confer advantages to the cells that carry them. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fertility factors, resistance factors, bacteriocin factors, virulence plasmids. |
|
|
Term
| eukaryotic genomes consist of both __, and ___ DNA |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| eukaryotic cells are often ___, which means they have two copies of each chromosome |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of DNA and globular proteins called ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| DNA, which has an overall negative charge, wraps around the positively charged histones to form beads called ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in regions of the chromosome where genes are active, the chromatin fibers are loosely packed to form ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| inactive dna is more tightly packed and is called ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Nucleosomes clump with other proteins to form ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| dna replication is an ____ that allows a cell to pass copies of its genome to its descendants |
|
Definition
| anabolic polymerization process |
|
|
Term
| polymerization processes require monomers and energy; ___ serve both functions in DNA replication |
|
Definition
| triphosphate deoxyribonucleotides |
|
|
Term
| the key to DNA replication is the ____ of the two strands |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in ___, a cell separates the two original strands and uses each as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| biologists say that DNA replication is ___ because each daughter DNA molecule is composed of one original strand and one new strand |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| dna replication begins at a specific sequence called the ___ . first, a cell removes ___, exposing the DNA helix. next an enzyme called ____ locally unzips the DNA molecule by ____, which exposes the bases in a ___. Other ___ stabilize the single strands so that they do not rejoin while replication proceeds. |
|
Definition
| origin; chromosomal proteins; dna helicase; breaking down the hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs; replication fork; protein molecules |
|
|
Term
| After helicase untwists and seperates the strands, a molecule of an enzyme called ___ binds to each strand |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| DNA polymerases replicate DNA in only one direction ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| one new strand is synthesized continuously as a long chain of nucleotides and is called the ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the other new strand is synthesized in short segments and is called the ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the leading strand and lagging strand are replicated ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| synthesis of the leading strand proceeds continuously ___ the replication fork from a single ___ at the origin, following ___ and the ___ down the DNA |
|
Definition
| toward; RNA primer;helicase and the replication fork |
|
|
Term
| the lagging strand is synthesized ___ from the replication fork, discontinuously as a series of ___, each of which begins with its own ____ |
|
Definition
| away; okazaki fragments; RNA primer |
|
|
Term
| bacterial dna replication is further complicated by ____ of the daughter strands, in which a cell adds a methyl group to one or two bases that are part of specific nucleotide sequences |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| bacteria typically methylate ___ bases and only rarely a ___ base |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| methylation plays a roll in: |
|
Definition
| control of genetic expression, initiation of DNA replication, protection against viral infection, and repair of DNA. |
|
|
Term
| the ___ of an organism is the actual set of genes in its genome |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the ___ refers to the physical features and functional traits of an organism; including characteristics such as structures, morphology, and metabolism |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ determines phenotype by specifying what kinds of RNA and which structural, enzymatic, and regulatory protein molecules are produced |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| process by which genetic information is copied as RNA nucleotide sequences |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| process by which rna molecules in ribosomes then synthesize polypeptides |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ states that DNA is transcribed to RNA which is then translated into polypeptides |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| cells transcribe four main types of RNA from DNA: |
|
Definition
| RNA primer, mRNA, tRNA, rRNA |
|
|
Term
| molecules for DNA polymerase to use during DNA replication |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| molecules which carry genetic info from chromosomes to ribosomes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| molecules which combine with ribosomal polypeptides to form ribosomes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| molecules which deliver amino acids to the ribosomes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___, the enzymes that synthesize RNA, bind to specific nucleotide sequences called ____ |
|
Definition
| RNA polymerases; promoters |
|
|
Term
| In bacteria, a polypeptide subunit of RNA polymerase called the ___ is necessary for recognition of a promoter |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ unwinds and unzips the DNA molecule in the promoter region and then travels along the DNA, unzipping the double helix as it moves |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a cell uses different ___ and ___ to provide some control over the relative amount of transcription. |
|
Definition
| sigma factors; promoter sequences |
|
|
Term
| ___ with different sigma factos do not adhere equally strongly to all promoters |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| like DNA polymerase, rna polymerase links nucleotides in the ___ direction only |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ unwinds and opens DNA by itself; helicase is not required |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| RNA polymerase does not need a ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| RNA polymerase is ___ than DNA polymerase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| RNA polymerase incorporates ____ instead of deoxyribonucleotides. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The ___ function of RNA polymerase is less efficeint than DNA polymerase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| transcription ___ when RNA polymerase and the transcribed RNA are released from DNA |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| self termination occurs when RNA polymerasse transcribes a terminator sequence of DNA composed of two symmetrical sequences: |
|
Definition
| one that is very rich in guanine and cytosine bases, followed by a region rich in adenine bases. |
|
|
Term
| ___ termination depends on a termination protein that pushes that forces the RNA and DNA apart |
|
Definition
| Rho dependent termination |
|
|
Term
| eukaryotic cells transcibes RNA ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| transcription in prokaryotes occurs in the ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| eukaryotes have ___ types of nuclear RNA polymerase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| eukaryotic cells must process mRNA before polypeptide translation, this involves three events: |
|
Definition
| capping, polyadenylation, and splicing |
|
|
Term
| ___ is the process whereby ribosomes use the genetic info of nucleotide sequences to synthesize polypeptides composed of specific amino acid sequences |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ can be thought of as polypeptide factories |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| triplets of mRNA nucleotides that code for specific amino acids |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| AUG: codes for methionine in eukaryotes and fMET in prokaryotes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ carries genetic info from a chromosome to the ribosome |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 ways eukaryotic mRNA differs from prokaryotic mRNA |
|
Definition
1) eukaryotic cells extensively process mRNA
2) a molecule of eukaryotic mRNA contains instructions for only one polypeptide.
3) in eukaryotic cells, transcription and translation do not occur simultaneously, it must leave the nucleus |
|
|
Term
| a molecule of ___ transfers the correct amino acid to a ribosome during polypeptide synthesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| tRNA carries a specific amino acid and recognizes mRNA codons by matching them with ___ only for that amino acid |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| give the purpose, beginning point, and ending point for replication, transcription, and translation |
|
Definition
| replication: to duplicate the cells genome, origin, origin or the end of a linear DNA molecule; Transcription: to synthesize RNA, promoter, terminator; translation: to synthesize polypeptides, AUG start codon, stop codons |
|
|
Term
| ___ is a method of translational control and is an RNA molecule complementary to a portion of mRNA, tRNA, or a gene |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| an ___ consists of a promoter and a series of genes which code for enzymes and structures such as channel proteins |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some operons are controlled by an adjacent regulatory element called an ___ where a repressor protein binds to stop transcription |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ____ operons are not usually transcribed and must be activated by inducers |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ operons are transcribed continuously until deactivated by repressors. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the __ operon is an inducible operon. the ___, a protein encoded by a regulatory gene is constantly synthesized. when ___ is absent from the cells environment, the repressor binds to the operator thus blocking the movement of RNA polymerase and halting transcription. When lactose is present, ____ |
|
Definition
| lac, repressor, lactose, it acts as an inducer by inactivating the repressor so that it cannot bind to the operator thus allowing transcription to proceed. |
|
|
Term
| the ___ operon is a repressible operon. the repressor is normally ___, whenever tryp is not present in the environment, the tryp operon is ___, when tryp is available ____ |
|
Definition
| tryp, inactive, active and the mRNA is transcribed and tryp is produced, it activates the repressor by binding to it which then binds to the operator thus halting the movement of RNA polymerase. |
|
|
Term
| inducible operons regulate ___ pathways, while repressible operons regulate ___ pathways |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a ___ is a change in the nucleotide base sequence of a genome, particularly its genes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mutation in which just one nucleotide base pair is affected. includes? |
|
Definition
| point mutation; insertions deletions and substitutions |
|
|
Term
| substitution of a nucleotide of similar shape, a purine for a purine or a pyrimidine for a pyrimidine. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| substitution of a purine for a pyrimidine or vice versa |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which nucleotides are purines and which are pyrimidines |
|
Definition
purines: adenine, guanine
pyrimidines:cytosine, thymine, uracil |
|
|
Term
| insertions and deletions are also called ___ because nucleotide triplets subsequent to the mutation are displaced, creating new sequences of codons. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ affect proteins much more seriously than mere substitutions because a frame shift affects all codons subsequent to the mutation. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mutations can also involve ___, ___, or ___. such mutations and even larger deletions are called ____ |
|
Definition
| inversion, duplication, transposition, gross mutations |
|
|
Term
| a ___ affects the genotype but not the phenotype |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a change in a nucleotide sequence resulting in a codon that specifies a different amino acid is called a ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a mutation that changes a amino acid codon into a stop codon |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| this energizes electrons in atoms, causing some of the electrons to escape from their atoms |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ____ refers to the exchange of nucleotide sequences between two DNA molecules often mediated by segments that are composed of identical or nearly identical nucleotide sequences called homologous sequences |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| many prokaryotes can acquire genes from other microbes of the same generation - a process termed ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| cells that have the ability to take up DNA from their environment are said to be ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 4 methods of genetic recombination in bacteria |
|
Definition
| conjugation, transduction, transposons, and transformation |
|
|
Term
| involves the transfer of DNA from one cell to another via a replicating virus |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| transduction can occur between |
|
Definition
| prokaryotic cells or eukaryotic cells |
|
|
Term
| a virus that infects bacteria is called a ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when a phage incorporates remaining fragments of DNA into its structure, it is termed a ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in generalized transduction, the transducing phage carries a ___ from a donor host chromosomes or plasmid to a ___ |
|
Definition
| random segment of DNA; recipient host cell |
|
|
Term
| a method of genetic transfer in bacteria that requires physical contact |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| conjugation is mediated by ___ which are proteinacceous, rodlike structures extending from the surface of the cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the gene coding for conjugation pili is located on a plasmid called an ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| cells that contain an F plasmid are termed __, and cells that lack an F plasmid (recipient) are termed ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the cell that contains the conjugation pili is the ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ are segments of DNA that move themselves from one location in a DNA molecule to another location in the same or different molecule |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the result of the action of a transposon is termed ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In ___, a competent recipient prokaryote takes up DNA from its environment. competency is found naturally or can be created artificially in some cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Transformation requirements, state of donor, state of recipient |
|
Definition
| free dna in the environment and a competent recipient, dead, living |
|
|
Term
| Transduction requirements, state of donor, state of recipient |
|
Definition
| bacteriophage, killed by bacteriophage, living |
|
|
Term
| conjugation requirements, state of donor, state of recipient |
|
Definition
| cell to cell contact and F plasmid, living, living |
|
|
Term
| palindrome sequence found at each end of a transposon |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a simple transposon consisting of no more than two inverted repeats and a gene that encodes the enzyme transposase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ is the use of microorganisms to make useful products. Such products include bread, wine, beer, and cheese |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ____ is a new type of biotechnology in which scientists change the genotypes and phenotypes of organisms to benefit humans |
|
Definition
| recombinant DNA technology |
|
|
Term
| ___ are chemical and physical agents used to create changes in a microbes genome to effect desired changes in the microbes phenotype |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the enzyme ___ transcribes DNA from an RNA template; genetic researchers use this to make ___ |
|
Definition
| reverse transcriptase; complementary DNA |
|
|
Term
| ___ cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequences and are used to produce recombinant DNA molecules |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in recombinant DNA technology, a ___ is a small DNA molecule that carries a particular gene and a recognizable genetic marker into a cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ allows researchers to replicate molecules of DNA rapidly |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ is a technique for separating molecules by size, shape, and electrical charge |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ is the sequencing, analysis, and comparison of genomes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| scientists synthesize ___ by introducing genes for a pathogens polypeptides into cells or viruses |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ can detect infections and inherited diseases before a patient shows any sign of disease. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ identifies unique sequences of DNA and is used in crime scenes, paternity tests, etc. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ cures various diseases by replacing defective genes with normal genes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in ___ involving recombinant DNA technology, human genes would be inserted into animals to produce cells, tissues, or organs for introduction into the human body |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ plants and animals have been genetically altered by the inclusion of genes from other organisms |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| microbiologists typically use the term ___ when referring to an increase in population of microbes rather than an increase in size of an individual |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| an aggregation of cells arising from a single parent cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| three things all cells need for metabolism: |
|
Definition
1. a carbon source
2. a source of energy
3. a source of electrons or hydrogen atoms |
|
|
Term
| organisms that utilize an inorganic source of carbon as their sole source of carbon are called ___, so named because they feed themselves |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ catabolize reduced organic molecules they acquire from other organisms |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organisms that acquire energy from redox reactions involving inorganic and organic chemicals are called ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organisms that use light as their energy source are called ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organisms that acquire electrons from the same organic molecules that provide them carbon and energy are called ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organisms that acquire electrons or hydrogen atoms from inorganic sources are called |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| oxygen is essential for ___ because it serves as the final electron acceptor of etc, which produce most of the ATP in these organisms. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| oxygen is a deadly poison for __ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| singlet oxygen, superoxide radical, peroxide anion, hydroxyl radical |
|
|
Term
| these prevent toxicity by removing the excess energy of singlet oxygen |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ can maintain life via fermentation or anaerobic respiration, though their metabolic efficiency is often reduced in the absence of oxygen |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ do not use aerobic metabolism, but they tolerate oxygen by having some of the enxymes that detoxify oxygens poisonous forms |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| this process reduces nitrogen gas to ammonia |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| together ___ make up more than 95% of the dry weight of cells |
|
Definition
| carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen |
|
|
Term
| elements that are required in very small amounts |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organic molecules that organisms cannot synthesize but are required in small amounts |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ plays an important role in the 3-D structure of many types of biological molecules, and has different effects on the survival and growth of microbes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the lowest temp at which an organism is able to conduct metabolism is called the ___ |
|
Definition
| minimum growth temperature |
|
|
Term
| the highest temp at which an organism continues to metabolize is called the ___; when the temp exceeds this value, the organisms proteins are permanently denatured, and it dies |
|
Definition
| maximum growth temperature |
|
|
Term
| the temperature at which an organisms metabolic activities produce the highest growth rate is the ___ |
|
Definition
| optimum growth temperature |
|
|
Term
| microbes that grow best at temps below 15 C and can even grow at temps below 0 C |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organisms that grow best in temps ranging from 20C-40C |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| because normal body temp is about 37 C, human pathogens are generally _ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ organisms are mesophiles that can survive brief periods at higher temps |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ grow at temps above 45 C in habitats such as compost piles and hot springs |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ grow in water above 80 C; others can live at temps above 100 C |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organisms are sensitive to changes in ___ because hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions interfere with hydrogen bonding within the molecules of proteins and nucleic acids; as a result, organisms have ranges that they prefer and tolerate |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| most bacteria and protozoa, including most pathogens, grow best in a narrow range around a neutral pH, which is ___; this is also the pH range of most tissues and organs in the human body |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organism that grow best in a neutral pH range are termed ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ are organisms that grow best in acidic habitats |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ live in alkaline soils and water up to pH 11.5 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| microorganisms require ___; they must be in a moist environment if they are to be metabolically active. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ is the diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane and is driven by unequal solute concentrations on the two sides of such a membrane |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the ___ of a solution is the pressure exerted on a semipermeable membrane by a solution containing solutes that cannot freely cross the membrane |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| solutions with greater concentrations of such solutes are __ relative to those wile a lower concentration, which are ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| shriveling up of the cells cytoplasm |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ are adapted to growth under high osmotic pressure |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organisms that do not require high salt concentrations but can tolerate them |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organisms that live under extreme hydrostatic pressure are called ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| relationships in which one organism harms or even kills another organism are considered to be ___ |
|
Definition
| antagonistic relationships |
|
|
Term
| In __ relationships, the individual members of an association cooperate such that each receives benefits that exceed those that would result if each lived by itself, even though each member could live seperately. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in __ relationships, organisms live in such close nutritional or physical contact that they become interdependent, such that the members rarely live outside the relationship |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ are examples of complex relationships among numerous individuals, which are often different species, that attach as a group to surfaces and display metabolic and structural traits different from those expressed by any of the microorganisms alone |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| biofilms often form as a result of a process called ___, in which bacteria respond to the density of nearby bacteria |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Cultures that are visible on the surface of solid media are called ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a __ is a sample of human material, such as feces, saliva, cerebrospinal fluid, or blood, that is examined or tested for the presence of microorganisms |
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Definition
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| ___ are microorganisms associated with a certain area of the body without causing diseases |
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Definition
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| when warm agar media are poured into test tubes that are then placed at an angle and left to cool until the agar solidifies, the result is ___ |
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Definition
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| a ___ is one in which the exact chemical composition is known |
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Definition
| defined medium aka synthetic medium |
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Term
| organisms that require a relatively large number of growth factors are termed ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| most chemoheterotrophs, including pathogens, are routinely grown on ___ that contain nutrients released by partial digestion of yeast, beef, soy, or proteins such as casein from milk. |
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Definition
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| the exact chemical composition of a ___ is unknown because partial digestion releases many different chemicals in a variety of concentrations |
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Definition
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Term
| ___ contains a variety of nutrients, including growth factors, it can support a wider variety of different microorganisms. |
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Definition
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| ____ typically contain substances that either favor the growth of particular microorganisms or inhibit the growth of unwanted ones. |
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Definition
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Term
| ____ are formulated such that either the presence of visible changes in the medium or differences in the appearance of colonies helps microbiologists differentiate among different kinds of bacteria growing on the medium |
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Definition
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Term
| many media are both ___ and ___; that is they enhance the growth of certain species that can then be distinguished from other species by variations in their effect on the medium or by the color of the colonies they produce |
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Definition
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Term
| ___ provide better anaerobic culturing conditions because they contain compounds that chemically combine with free oxygen and remove it from the medium |
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Definition
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Term
| ___ involves removing water from a frozen culture using an intense vacuum |
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Definition
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Term
| most unicellular organisms reproduce by ___, a process in which a cell grows to twice its normal size and divides in half to produce two daughter cells of equal size |
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Definition
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Term
| growth at an exponential rate |
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Definition
| logarithmic growth or exponential growth |
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Term
| The time required for a bacterial cell to grow and divide is its ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| a graph that plots the numbers of organisms in a growing population over time is known as a ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| During the ___, the cells are adjusting to their new environment; most cells do not reproduce immediately, but instead actively synthesize enzymes to utilize novel nutrients in the medium |
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Definition
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Term
| growth phase during which the population increases logarithmically and the reproductive rate reaches a constant as DNA and protein synthesis are maximized |
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Definition
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Term
| Populations in ___ are more susceptible to antimicrobial drugs that interfere with metabolism |
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Definition
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Term
| eventually the number of dying cells equals the number of cells being produced, this is known as ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| phase during which a population reaches a point at which cells die at a faster rate than they are produced |
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Definition
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Term
| direct methods of measuring bacterial growth: |
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Definition
| viable plate counts, membrane filtration, microscopic counts, and electronic counters, and most probable number |
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Term
| Indirect methods of measuring bacterial growth: |
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Definition
| metabolic activity, dry weight, and turbidity |
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Term
| reduction in the number of microorganisms and viruses; particularly potential pathogens on living tissues |
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Definition
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Term
| refers to an environment or procedure free of pathogenic contaminants |
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Definition
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Term
| suffixes indicating destruction of a type of microbe |
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Definition
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Term
| removal of microbes by mechanical means |
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Definition
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Term
| destruction of most microorganisms and viruses on nonliving tissue |
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Definition
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Term
| use of heat to destroy pathogens and reduce the number of spoilage microorganisms in foods and beverages |
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Definition
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Term
| removal of pathogens from objects to meet public health standards |
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Definition
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Term
| suffixes indicating inhibition, but not complete destruction, of a type of microbe |
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Definition
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Term
| destruction of all microorganisms and viruses in or on an object |
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Definition
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Term
| scientists define ___ as the permanent loss of reproductive ability under ideal environmental conditions |
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Definition
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Term
| ___ kill all pathogens, including bacterial endospores |
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Definition
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Term
| the idea that an effective antimicrobial agent must be more toxic to pathogen than to the pathogens host |
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Definition
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Term
| the ___ is the smallest amount of a drug that will inhibit growth and reproduction of the pathogen. |
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Definition
| minimum inhibitory growth (MIC) |
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Term
| the MIC is often determined via a ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| the lowest concentration of drug for which no growth occurs in the subcultures is the ___ |
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Definition
| minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) |
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Term
| Denaturation of proteins occurs as high temperatures break ____ bonds such as hydrogen bonds. |
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Definition
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Term
| a ribozyme is an enzyme made out of ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| ATP is made by substrate-level phosphorylation only during ____. |
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Definition
| glycolysis and a small amount in the Krebs cycle |
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Term
| In feedback inhibition pathways, the end-product of the pathway is usually ____ |
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Definition
| an inhibitor of the last enzyme in the pathway. |
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Term
| A(n) __________ is a type of enzyme that is capable of rearranging atoms within a molecule. |
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Definition
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Term
| ___ is a means by which a proton gradient is created, not used |
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Definition
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Term
| Since most proteins are too large to cross the cytoplasmic membrane, prokaryotes begin protein catabolism by secreting __________ into their environment. |
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Definition
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