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2011 Wittenberg University - Behavioral Neuroscience, Test 4
Kinzeler
81
Psychology
Undergraduate 4
11/14/2011

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Term
Emotions
Definition
Cognitive experience; affective reaction; a physiological response (sympathetic nervous system, locus coeruleus, which produces NE, which causes heightened arousal and vigilance; also produces epinephrine from adrenal glands which causes physical symptoms of fight or flight)
Cultural universality; similarities between humans and animals
Somatic nervous system activation (facial nerve 7)
Physiological feedback may not be necessary, but adds intensity; patients with spinal cord injury have full range of emotions
Conscious appraisal may not be necessary, but allows us to plan and execute a response
Term
James-Lange theory of emotion
Definition
The theory that a stimulus produces a physiological response which produces an emotion; you react before you feel an emotion
Term
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
Definition
The theory that a stimulus elicits an emotion which produces a physiological response
Term
Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
Definition
The theory that a person needs to experience physiological arousal and cognitively attribute the arousal to an appropriate stimulus
Gave two groups of participants an injection of epinephrine; activates the sympathetic nervous system; first group thought they were getting a multivitamin, and were not warned about side effects; second group thought they were getting a multivitamin with lots of side effects; participants are then put in a room with an angry or euphoric confederate; the no-side effect group reported the same emotion as the confederate; the side-effect group did not report or demonstrate any change in emotion based on the confederate; group that was not aware of side effects had to attribute those feelings to something, and figured they were having the same response as the confederate, whereas the side-effect-aware group was already expecting it
Term
Vascular theory of emotion
Definition
A theory based on changes in bloodflow through blood vessels in your face rushing out of the face (cavernous sinus), the brain cools just a little and causes happy emotions; blood pooling in the face causes slight warming of the brain and negative emotions
Term
Cerebral cortex
Definition
Right hemisphere- understanding and expression
Both hemispheres- feeling emotion; right - negative, left - positive
Term
Negative emotions
Definition
Emotions that evoke a fight or flight response; anger, fear
Amygdala- particularly the central and basolateral nucleus- is most important part of the brain for this
Amygdala may activate the basal ganglia, which organizes and initiates behavior, and the periaqueductal gray; prefrontal cortex is vital to the expression of emotions
Term
Amygdala
Definition
If you put an electrode in this part of the brain and stimulate it, it will produce fear, anxiety, and rage
Damage to this area produces difficulty identifying fear and anger
Imaging has shown that this area is more active when viewing expressions of fear
Contains GABA and endorphin receptors
Lateral nucleus
Central nucleus and basolateral nucleus- most involved in negative emotions
Term
Kluver-Bucy Syndrome
Definition
Caused by damage to the amygdala
Tend to be low in fear and aggression; eat too much or inappropriate objects; hyper-sexuality regarding inappropriate objects
Term
Prefrontal cortex
Definition
Damage to this part of the brain causes increased rage
Phineas Gage
Term
Serotonin
Definition
Higher levels of this reduces aggression
Term
Norepinephrine and dopamine
Definition
More of these substances increases aggression
Term
Testosterone
Definition
More of this hormone can increase aggression
Term
Fear
Definition
Overactivation of our flight response
Increasing GABA (with benzodiazepines/anxiolytics) decreases this; enhance the effects of GABA at receptors to open channels for longer periods of time
Term
Aggressive disorders
Definition
Too much fight response
Includes dementia, brain injury, mental retardation, epilepsy, Huntington's disease, intermittent explosive disorder
Term
Intermittent explosive disorder
Definition
Rage not associated with another disorder
Too little serotonin, too much norepinephrine
Treated with SSRIs (increase serotonin) and beta blockers (decrease norepinephrine)
Term
Generalized anxiety disorder
Definition
Uncontrolled worry
Free-floating chronic (>6 months) worry
Physical symptoms include (autonomic underarousal) headaches, muscle tension, stomach aches, irritability
Term
Phobias
Definition
Intense fear of an object or situation; greater response than the threat merits
Specific- e.g. spiders, heights, flying
Social- fear of social situations and being scrutinized
Agoraphobia- fear of spaces or areas that are difficult to escape from; e.g. elevators, crowds
Term
OCD
Definition
Repeated and >1 hour/day immersion in obsessions, compulsions, or both (typically comorbid)
Obsessions can include contamination, sex, aggression, religion, symmetry
Compulsions can include checking, patterns, counting, arranging, washing, repeating, hoarding
Term
Treatments for anxiety disorders
Definition
Beta blockers, benzodiazepines (except for OCD), SSRIs (works best for OCD)
Term
Positive emotions
Definition
Happiness, joy, euphoria
Uses the mesolimbic dopamine pathway; medial forebrain bundle (MFB- bundle of axons between the VTA and nucleus accumbens that release dopamine)
Ventral tagmental (VTA) > nucleus accumbens > prefrontal cortex
Activation of any of these parts causes pleasure
Term
Cascade theory of reward
Definition
How all of the different neurotransmitter systems work together
Excitatory neurons in the hypothalamus release serotonin > serotonin causes endorphins to be released in the VTA > endorphins inhibit the release of GABA (dopamine neurons in the VTA are disinhibited) > can release dopamine into the nucleus accumbens
Term
Reward deficiency syndrome
Definition
A disorder characterized by decreased activity in the nucleus accumbens and hippocampus
Abnormal A1 allele- inactive dopamine receptor (D2)
Dysphoria; cravings for substances that increase dopamine
Often abuse drugs, alcohol, sex, food, etc.
Term
Psychoactive drugs
Definition
Drugs that produce alterations in consciousness, emotion, and behavior
LSD, cocaine, heroine, amphetamines, marijuana, alcohol, nicotine, caffeine
Term
Substance abuse
Definition
A maladaptive use of a substance that is not considered dependent
Term
Addiction
Definition
When a person becomes physically and psychologically dependent on a substance
Physically dependent when they develop tolerance and withdrawal
Psychologically dependent when cravings occur
Addictive substances activate the reward cascade; also triggered by positive emotions
Addicts can have low levels of D2 receptor activity - A1 allele
Treat withdrawal symptoms and psychological dependence; pharmacological treatments such as methadone
Term
Delirium tremens (the DTs)
Definition
A condition experienced during very severe withdrawal from alcohol
Extreme shaking, disorientation, confusion, terrifying visual hallucinations, memory problems
Term
Hedonic homeostatic dysregulation model
Definition
A model of addiction
Withdrawal (negative affect; dopamine\/, opioids\/, stress^ - negative reinforcer) > preoccupation (anticipation; stress hormones^, opioids^, dopamine^) > binge (intoxication; dopamine^, opioids^ - positive reinforcer) >back to withdrawal and the cycle continues
The more and more an individual goes through the withdrawal-negative affect phase- dopamine levels drop more; more drug must be consumed to produce the desired rewarding effects
Term
Stress
Definition
A negative experience accompanied by characteristic emotional, behavioral, biochemical, and physiological responses
Can be caused by catastrophic events (natural disasters, war, terrorist attacks), major life events (divorce, moving, having a baby, getting fired, death in the family), and hassles (minor life events that are not catastrophic but very annoying; traffic, chores, broken items)
Can be studied by exposing subjects to stressful stimuli or using subjects who are already stressed; can measure depression, hopelessness, anxiety, anger, heart rate, blood pressure, or corticosteroids
Paraventricular nucleus receives info from various areas of the nervous system about stressors (NST (major organs like gut), tegmentum and reticular formation (somatosensory input), periaqueductal gray (pain), locus coeruleus (detects changes in heart rate, blood pressure), limbic system (BNST)) > triggers a cascade of events that results in stress hormones being released
Term
Acute stressor
Definition
Occurs infrequently and for a short period of time
Term
Chronic stressors
Definition
Occurs repeatedly or for a long period of time
Term
Stress response
Definition
Initiated by locus coeruleus-- activates the sympathetic nervous system; increases heart rate, blood flow, and respiration
Also initiated by the paraventricular nucleus-- Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis-- hypothalamus releases corticotropic-releasing hormone (CRH > anterior pituitary releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) > stimulates the adrenal glands to produce glucocorticoids (corticosterone in animals, cortisol in humans) > elevates blood glucose levels to improve brain and body function > negative feedback loop
Interactions between LC and HPA axis: positive feedback loop; reciprocal excitation
Term
Health effects of stress
Definition
Suppresses our immune systems-- the body's defense against malignant cells or invading pathogens
Easy development of colds
Term
Effects of chronic stress
Definition
On the LC: repeated exposure to a stressor causes habituation (decrease in release of NE from the LC); add a novel stressor to the situation causes sensitization (increase in release of NE)
On the HPA axis: negative feedback loop doesn't work as effectively; increased levels of glucocorticoids in the body and brain
Long-term, glucocorticoids can cause regression and loss of dendritic spines in the hippocampus-- learning and memory impairments; increases amount of calcium entering the cells (increases amount of neurotransmitter released); too much calcium can be excitotoxic to neurons and cause cell death; neurons in the hippocampus are particularly vulnerable-- becomes significantly smaller in PTSD patients and people who have experienced long-term abuse
Term
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA)
Definition
Hypothalamus releases corticotropic-releasing hormone (CRH)
Anterior pituitary releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Stimulates the adrenal glands to produce glucocorticoids
Term
PTSD
Definition
Exposure to at least one tragic event
Flashbacks-- reoccurring distressing memories of the event
Hyperactivity of the LC
Term
Major depressive disorder
Definition
Lingering depressed mood or diminished interest in pleasurable activities
Eating disturbances, sleep disturbances, lack of energy or restlessness, difficulty concentrating, feelings of hopelessness and worthlessness
Hyperactivity of the HPA axis; excess of CRH and cortisol released; down-regulation of CRH receptors in the brain
Norepinephrine hypothesis: deficit of NE in critical areas of the brain; tricyclic antidepressants and MAOIs are effective treatments; increase NE levels in the synapse; may cause structural changes in neurons that were damaged by chronic stress
Low levels of thyroid hormone in ~30% of depressed patients
Low levels of estrogen (menopause, after childbirth, PMS)
Melatonin dysfunction (less time in SWS; altered distributions of REM)
Term
Learning
Definition
A change in an organism's behavior or thought as a result of experience
Term
Explicit learning
Definition
A change in behavior that has taken place with conscious awareness
Term
Implicit learning
Definition
Acquisition of behavior for which we have no conscious awareness; conditioning, forming habits, habituation
Term
Nonassociative learning
Definition
Change in magnitude of response to environmental events
Habituation and sensitization
Term
Associative learning
Definition
Connection between two elements or events
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
Term
Habituation
Definition
The process of responding less strongly over time to repeated stimuli
Repeated stimuli > sensory neuron releases less neurotransmitter > motor neuron...
Normally, there are 1300 axon terminals on sensory neurons; decreases to 800 axon terminals
Term
Sensitization
Definition
Responding more strongly over time
Dangerous or irritating stimuli
Normally, there are 1300 axon terminals on sensory neurons; increases to 2800 axon terminals
Serotonin increase
Term
Thorndike
Definition
Father of operant conditioning
Law of effect: if a stimulus elicited behavior results in a reward, the stimulus is more likely to elicit behavior in the future
Term
Dementia
Definition
Substantial loss of memory and other cognitive abilities in the elderly
Impairments in memory, attention, language, problem solving
Beyond normal aging
Most common form is Alzheimer's Disease
Term
Alzheimer's Disease
Definition
Disorientation, cognitive impairments in language and declarative memory
Plaques: clumps of amyloid protein that cluster among axon terminals and interfere with neural transmission
Tangles: abnormal accumulation of tau protein inside neurons; associated with death of neurons
Loss of synapses beyond that of normal aging
Degeneration of acetylcholine neurons
Cell death in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex
Enlarged/exaggerated ventricles and sulci
Term
Zygote
Definition
Fertilized egg
Blastocyst for a while, then folds to become the neural tube
Term
Blastocyst
Definition
Balls of cells
Trophoblast cells- placenta
Embryonic stem cells
Term
Embryo
Definition
2nd - 8th week of prenatal development, during which limbs, facial features, and major organs of the body take form
Term
Fetus
Definition
Period of prenatal development from the 9th week until birth
All major organs have formed
Term
5 Stages of brain development
Definition
Cell proliferation: begins 4 weeks after fertilization; neurons are forming at a rate of 250,000 cells a minute
Cell migration: begins about 6 weeks after fertilization; glial cells and proteins direct migration; neurons born first migrate closest to the neural tube
Cell differentiation: 7-8 weeks after fertilization; immature neurons begin to change shape
Axonal and dendritic growth: begins about 10 weeks after fertilization and continues long after birth; neurotrophins aid in dendritic and axonal growth- helps neurons form synaptic connections; nerve growth factor was the first discovered
Cell death: primarily happens after birth; apoptosis- programmed cell death; glutamate is the main neurotransmitter
Term
Chemical insults to the developing brain
Definition
When the embryo/fetus is exposed to poisons or toxins consumed by the mother
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome,
Term
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Definition
Behavioral and cognitive deficits
Interferes with cell migration
Term
Physical insults to the developing brain
Definition
Radiation- affects cell migration
Physical damage to the brain
Diseases and malnutrition; syphilis- deafness and absence of a vestibular system
Genetic abnormalities- Down's Syndrome (3 chromosomes for #21); Holoprosencephaly (only one cerebral hemisphere develops; can also be born with only one eye; cause is unknown)
Term
Brain damage produced by trauma
Definition
Concussion: a blow to the head that results in bruising of the brain
Contusion: head is jarred with such force that the brain becomes shifted in the skull and badly bruised
Cerebral laceration: tearing of outer surface of the brain (bullet, pieces of skull, blood clots)
Term
Brain damage produced by disease
Definition
Meningitis: bacterial infection of the meninges (protective layers around the brain)
Syphilis: in its final stage gets into the brain; extensive damage to frontal lobes; cognitive and emotional impairments
Viral encephalitis: virus transmitted by mosquitoes; 50% of people with VE will die
AIDS-related dementia: damage to cerebral cortex; emotional blunting, cognitive difficulty, apathy, confusion; 35% of AIDS patients
Term
Memory impairments due to alcohol abuse
Definition
Korsakoff's syndrome: caused by a deficiency in vitamin thiamine (B1); anterograde amnesia; severe damage to mamillary bodies
Term
Kennard Effect
Definition
Brain function develops normally when damage occurs in infancy; critical period
Term
Structural changes in the brain after injury
Definition
The brain is plastic; neurogenesis (growth of neurons) happens beyond childhood, especially in the hippocampus
Waste removal by glial cells
Regrowth of axons
Term
Psychoses
Definition
Severe mental disorders in which thinking is disturbed and the affected person is not well oriented for person, time, and place
Can be reversible or irreversible
Term
Schizophrenia
Definition
"Split mind"; disorganization of associations leading to disconnected thoughts, words, and emotions
Loss of contact with reality
Inability to function normally in daily life
1.5% prevalence during lifetime; 2.5 million Americans in a given year; equally split between genders, though males have earlier onset (18-25 for males, 25-35 for females; this is because the prefrontal cortex is not done developing until this age
Positive symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech ("word salad"), motor disturbances
Negative symptoms: social and emotional engagement, appropriate emotional response, normal cognition or affect
Cognitive deficits: organization and reorganization of thoughts, attention deficits
Increased size of ventricles and sulci in the brain (takes up room where frontal lobes would be); decreased activation and size of the amygdala, hippocampus, and frontal lobe
A majority of patients and 45% of their relatives show abnormal saccades in smooth pursuit tasks (eye movements)
Dopamine hypothesis: positive symptoms caused by an excess of dopamine (drugs that inhibit dopamine help control symptoms, drugs that promote dopamine can produce symptoms, like cocaine and amphetamines); increase in density of DA receptors; overactivity of DA in the mesolimbic system (midbrain, amygdala, hippocampus- emotion and reward) and nigrostriatal pathway (substantia nigra to basal ganglia- movement); underactivity of dopamine in the mesocortical pathway (midbrain to cortex- cognition; not affected by antipsychotic drugs)
Glutamate hypothesis: PCP produces symptoms similar to schizophrenia by blocking NMDA glutamate receptor; schizophrenia symptoms may be related to abnormalities with glutamate, because overactivity of DA blocks glutamate release
Prenatal exposure to virus or trauma or other brain development disruptions may be a cause of schizophrenia
Diathesis-stress model: genetics, biological processes, and perinatal insults can all predispose a person to develop schizophrenia; major life stressors can trigger the disorder if good coping skills are not present
Term
Personality disorders
Definition
Consistent, abnormal patterns of behavior that progress for a long period of time
Cognitive difficulties, emotional impairments, impulsive behaviors, disruptions in interpersonal functioning
Schizophrenic spectrum disorders: genetically related to schizophrenia
Term
Schizoid personality disorder
Definition
Genetically related to schizophrenia; social detachment and flat affect; no positive symptoms
Term
Borderline personality disorder
Definition
Condition marked by extreme instability in mood, identity, and impulse control
Self-destructive behaviors, manipulation of others, intense feelings of abandonment when alone
Serotonin, dopamine, and opiate systems implicated in this disorder
Term
Antisocial personality disorder
Definition
Criminal behavior; impulsivity/aggression; disregard for safety and wellbeing of others; lack of remorse
Term
Limbic system
Definition
Nucleus accumbens, hippocampus, amygdala, septum, and olfactory bulb
Parts of the prefrontal cortex, cingulate gyrus, hypothalamus, thalamus, and midbrain
Term
Mood disorders
Definition
When mood is altered in a way that affects daily life
More profound than "feeling blue" or "feeling hyper"; more long-lasting, consistent, and interfering
Unipolar disorders: major depressive, dysthymic, postpartum depression, seasonal affective
Bipolar disorders: bipolar I, bipolar II, cyclothymia
Term
Hebb's Rule
Definition
If an axon of a presynaptic neuron is active while the postsynaptic neuron is firing, the synapse between them will be strengthened
"Neurons that fire together wire together"
Term
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
Definition
An increase in readiness for the post-synaptic neuron to fire following repeated stimulation by the presynaptic neuron
Is relatively long-lasting
Occurs in areas of the brain involved in memory (hippocampus, amygdala, cortex, and cerebellum)
Glutamate: 2 receptor types: NMDA (Magnesium block) and Non-NMDA (AMPA)
1. Magnesium block removed from NMDA receptor
2. Calcium released into the post-synaptic neuron activate protein kinases
3. Nitric Oxide released from the post-synaptic side crosses the synapse and increases release of glutamate presynaptically
4. # of glutamate receptors increases
Induces spine growth, spine number, and perforation and formation of MSB
Term
Short-term memory
Definition
Limited amounts of info are stored briefly
7 pieces of info at once
Term
Long-term memory
Definition
Large amounts of info is stored indefinitely
Term
Consolidation
Definition
The process by which short-term memories are transferred to long-term memories
Term
Working memory
Definition
Temporary register for information while it is being used
Different working memory sites: object identification, spatial location, verbal information
Central executive system: coordinates the different working memory systems; prefrontal cortex & anterior cingulate cortex
Term
Declarative memory (explicit)
Definition
Conscious retention of facts and events
Episodic: memory for events in one’s own life (right hemisphere)
Semantic: memory for general knowledge (left hemisphere)
Term
Non-declarative memory (implicit)
Definition
Unconscious memory for learned behaviors, habits, skills, and classical conditioning
Involves the cerebellum and corticostriatal pathway
Term
Priming
Definition
An improvement in the ability to recognize particular stimuli following previous exposure to similar stimuli
Term
Effects of emotion on memory
Definition
Norepinephrine and cortisol are released when you are emotionally aroused; they activate the amygdala which enhances hippocampal activity (increases consolidation)
Also increases glucose availability in the brain
Term
Anterograde amnesia
Definition
Inability to encode new memories from our experiences
Can be caused by damage to the hippocampus
Term
Retrograde amnesia
Definition
Loss of memories from our past
Term
Bipolar disorder
Definition
Condition marked by a history of at least one manic episode (dramatically elevated mood, decreased need for sleep, increased energy, impaired judgment)
Low levels of Serotonin & NE; high levels of dopamine
Treatments: lithium alone, lithium + anti-depressants
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