Term
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Definition
| all cells except reproductive cells |
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Definition
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| contain exact same genetic info |
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| special region where cromatids are closely attached |
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| yields nonidentical haploid daughter cells |
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Definition
| includes mitosis and cytokinesis, shortest part of cell cycle |
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Definition
| 90% of cycle, longer stage, cell grows and cpis chromosomes |
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| a subcellular region containing material that functions though-out the cell cycle to organize the cell's microtubules. |
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Definition
| radical array of short microtubules that extends from each centrosome |
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Definition
| structural protein at centromere, used to pull apart |
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| process by which cytokinesis occurs |
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Definition
| shallow groove in the cell surface near old metaphase plate |
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| cell cycle control system |
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Definition
| cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that both trigger and coordinate key events in the cell cycle |
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Definition
| control point where stop and go-ahead signals can regulate the cycle (G1, G2 and M) |
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Definition
| a protein released by certain cells that stimulates other cells to divide |
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Definition
| process that converts normal cells to cancer cells |
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Definition
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Definition
| invasive tumors that impair the function of one of more organs |
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Definition
| unit of hereditary info coding for specific animo acid sequence |
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Definition
| genes location along length of chromosome |
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Definition
| pair carrying genes controlling the same inherited characters |
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Definition
| all chromosomes besides sex |
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Definition
| any cell with two chromosome sets |
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Definition
| has haploid number of chromosome |
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Definition
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| alternation of generations |
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Definition
| both diploid and haploid stages that are multicellular |
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Definition
| homologous pairs line up and connected allowing crossing over |
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Definition
| x-shaped region holding homologous together and limit crossing over |
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Definition
| indiviguals that carry genes from two different parents |
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Definition
| heritable feature that varies among individuals |
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Term
| each variant for a character |
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Definition
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Definition
| the mating of two true-breeding varieties |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
| alternate versions of genes |
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Definition
| breeding of an unknown by an homo recessive |
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Definition
| heterozygous for one character |
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Definition
| individuals heter for two characters |
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Term
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Definition
| offspring show a mixture of the two parent traits |
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Term
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Definition
| both alleles effect and are 'expressed' |
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Term
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Definition
| have multiple phenotypic effects |
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Term
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Definition
| gene at one locus alters phenotypic expression of a gene at second locus |
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Definition
| effect of two or more genes on single phenotypic character |
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Definition
| environmental influence phenotypically |
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Definition
| most often observed in the natural population |
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Term
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Definition
| located on either sex chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| inactive X in females that lies along the inside of the nuclear envelope |
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Definition
| genes located on the same chromosome |
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Definition
| production of offspring with traits that different from parents |
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Definition
| genetic map based on recombination frequencies |
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Definition
| one recombination frequency |
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Term
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Definition
| members of homologous pair do not move apart properly during meiosis 1 or 2 |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
| part of chromosome fragment is lost |
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Term
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Definition
| deletion added to another chromosome causing repeat in sequence |
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Term
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Definition
| chromosome fragment reattaches to original chromosome but in reverse order |
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Term
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Definition
| fragment joins to non-homologous chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| variation in phenotype depending on who the allele was inherited from |
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Term
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Definition
| change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| adenine and guanine - two organic rings |
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Term
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Definition
| cytosine and thymine - one ring |
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Term
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Definition
| short stretches of DNA having a specific sequence of nucleotides |
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Term
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Definition
| y-shaped region where the parental strands of of DNA are being unwound |
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Term
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Definition
| enzymes that untwist the double helix |
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Term
| singe strand binding protein |
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Definition
| bind to unpaired DNA to stabilize |
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Term
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Definition
| relieves winding strain by breaking, swiveling, and rejoining them |
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Term
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Definition
| catalyzes the synthesis of new DNA by adding nucleotides to preexisting chains |
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Term
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Definition
| one primer is needed and then the replication is continuous |
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Term
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Definition
| moves away from replication fork in small segments |
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Definition
| segments of lagging strand |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| synthesizes new DNA by adding nucleotides to 3' end of pre-existing DNA strand or primer |
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Term
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Definition
| removes RNA nucleotides of primer from 5' end and replaces them with DNA nucleotides. |
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Term
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Definition
| repetitive sequence at the end of DNA that protects from erosion during rounds of replication |
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Definition
| DNA combined with large amounts of protein |
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Definition
| tightly packed chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| loosely packed chromosomes |
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Definition
| process by which DNA directs the synthesis of proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA |
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Term
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Definition
| carries genetic messages from DNA to protein-synthesizing machinery |
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Term
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Definition
| sisthesis of polypeptide under the direction of mRNA |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| mRNA base triplets written 5' to 3' |
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Term
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Definition
| pulls strands of DNA apart and joins nucleotides as the base pair along |
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Term
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Definition
| DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attaches and initiates transcription |
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Term
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Definition
| sequence that ends transcription in bac. |
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Term
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Definition
| stretch of DNA that is transcribed into RNA |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| collection of proteins that mediate the binding of RNA polymerase and the initiation of transcription |
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Term
| transcription initiation complex |
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Definition
| whole complex of transcription factors and RNA pol 2 bound to promotor |
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Term
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Definition
| DNA forming initiation complex in eukaryotic promotor |
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Term
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Definition
| modified form of guanine that reduces degradation |
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Term
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Definition
| 50-250 A nucleotides that facilitate export, protect from degradation and help ribosomes attach |
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Term
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Definition
| removal of introns from mRNA that will then not be translated |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| several snRNPs joined with additional proteins to form an even larger assembly |
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Term
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Definition
| allows for a single gene to code for more than one polypeptide |
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Term
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Definition
| transfer amino acids from cytoplasmic pool of amino acids to a ribosome |
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Term
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Definition
| end of tRNA, nucleotide triplet complementary to mRNA |
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Term
| animoacyl-tRNA synthetases |
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Definition
| carries out correct matching of tRNA and amino acids |
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Term
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Definition
| ribosomal subunits constructed of proteins and Rna molecules - most abundant |
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Term
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Definition
| string of ribosomes during translation |
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Term
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Definition
| replacement of one nucleotide and its partner with another pair |
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Term
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Definition
| change one amino acid to another |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| moves reading frame causing false sequence |
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Term
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Definition
| chemical and physical agents that cause mutations |
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Term
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Definition
| the switch on a segment of DNA and controls the access of RNA pol to the genes |
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Term
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Definition
| operator, promotor and the genes they control |
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Term
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Definition
| protein that can switch off operon |
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Term
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Definition
| (trp) located far from operon and has own promotor |
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Term
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Definition
| a small molecule that cooperates with a repressor protein to switch an operon off |
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Term
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Definition
| inactivated the repressor |
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Term
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Definition
| allosteric regulatory protein |
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Term
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Definition
| CAP, protein that binds to DNA and stimulates transcription of a gene |
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Term
| differential gene expression |
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Definition
| the exxpression of different genes by cells with the same genome |
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Term
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Definition
| acetyl groups are added to lysines in histone tails- increase transcription |
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Term
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Definition
| inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directly involving the nucleotide sequence |
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Term
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Definition
| segments of noncoding DNA that help regulate transcription by binding to certain proteins |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| recognize ubiquitin tagged proteins and degrade them |
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Term
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Definition
| small single stranded RNA molecules that are capable of binding to complementary sequences in mRNA |
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Term
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Definition
| turn off expression of a gene with same sequence as the RNA |
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Term
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Definition
| small in size and function to miRNA |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| normal versions of the cellular genes that code for normal growth and division |
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Term
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Definition
| help prevent uncontrolled cell growth |
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Term
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Definition
| G protein the relays a signal from a growth factor receptor n plasma membrane to a cascade of protein kinases |
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Term
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Definition
| coded for specific transcription factor that promotes the synthesis of cell cycle inhibiting proteins |
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Term
Frederick Griffith experiment
1920s |
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Definition
documented movement of genes from one organism to another (transformation)
movement of material can alter the genetic makeup of the recipient cell
R and S |
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Term
Oswald Theodore Avery, Colin MacLeod,
and Maclyn McCarty |
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Definition
Only purified DNA from type S could transform type R
Purified DNA might still contain traces of contamination that may be the transforming principle
Added DNase, RNase and proteases
RNase and protease had no effect
With DNase no transformation
DNA is the genetic material |
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Term
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Definition
determined hereditary information was DNA, not protein
(phages and tagging) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| supported semiconservative model |
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Term
| Meselson-Stahl experiment |
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Definition
| used centrifuge and label DNA with N 14 and 15 to see how replication occured |
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Term
| DNA replication is very accurate (reasons) |
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Definition
Hydrogen bonding between A and T or G and C more stable than mismatches
Active site of DNA polymerase unlikely to form bonds if pairs mismatched
DNA polymerase removes mismatched pairs
Proofreading results in DNA polymerase backing up and digesting linkages
Other DNA repair enzymes |
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Term
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Definition
| cuts error in DNA sequence |
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Term
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Definition
Telomeres shorten with each mitotic division too short = no more division
Cells typically divide 20-50x
Telomere shortening may be the cause of aging |
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Term
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Definition
| Richard Burgess-The protein that gives promoter-recognition specificity to the RNA polymerase core enzyme of bacteria. |
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Term
| Direction of transcription and DNA strand used varies among genes |
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Definition
| In all cases, synthesis of RNA transcript is 5’ to 3’ and DNA template strand reads 3’ to 5’ |
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Term
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Definition
The code: mRNA
Adaptors to match codons and amino acids
tRNA (+ aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase)
An assembler: ribosome |
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Term
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Definition
Initiation
mRNA, first tRNA and ribosomal subunits assemble
Elongation
Synthesis from start codon to stop codon
Termination
Complex disassembles at stop codon releasing completed polypeptide |
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Term
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Definition
Polypeptide chain has directionality
Parallels 5’ to 3’ orientation of mRNA
N-terminus or amino terminus is first amino acid
C-terminus or carboxyl terminus is last amino acid |
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Term
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Definition
| Carries information specifying amino acid sequences of proteins from DNA to ribosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| Serves as adapter molecule in protein synthesis; translates mRNA codons into amino acids |
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Term
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Definition
| Plays catalytic (ribozyme) roles and structural roles in ribosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| Serves as a precursor to mRNA, rRNA, or tRNA, before being processed by splicing or cleavage |
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Term
| Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) |
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Definition
| Plays structural and catalytic roles in spliceosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| Is a component of the the signal-recognition particle (SRP) |
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Term
| Small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) |
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Definition
| Aids in processing pre-rRNA transcripts for ribosome subunit formation in the nucleolus |
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Term
| Small interfering RNA (siRNA) and microRNA (miRNA) |
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Definition
| Are involved in regulation of gene expression |
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Term
| Bacterial gene regulation |
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Definition
Most commonly occurs at the level of transcription
Or control rate mRNA translated
Or regulated at protein or post-translation |
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Term
| Transcriptional regulation in bacteria |
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Definition
Involves regulatory transcription factors
Bind to DNA in the vicinity of a promoter and affect transcription of one or more nearby genes
Repressors inhibit transcription
Negative control
Activators increase the rate of transcription
Positive control |
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Term
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Definition
Lactose present, glucose scarce (cAMP level high): abundant lac
mRNA synthesized |
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Term
| Genes involved with breaking down lactose |
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Definition
(lac operon)
Negative regulation – because the repressor protein shuts down gene expression
Positive regulation – because Catabolite Activator Protein (CAP) turns gene expression up
Inducible – because the target of the gene products (lactose/allolactose) turns gene expression on |
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Term
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Definition
| = proteins used to pack DNA |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Methylation can inhibit transcription in 2 general ways |
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Definition
Methylation of CpG islands may prevent an activator from binding to an enhancer element
Converting chromatin from an open to a closed conformation
Methyl-CpG-binding proteins bind to methylated sequences and recruit proteins that condense the chromatin |
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Term
| 3 features found in most promoters |
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Definition
Transcriptional start site
Where transcription begins
With TATA box forms core promoter
By itself results in low level basal transcription
TATA box
5’ – TATAAAA – 3’
25 base pairs upstream from transcriptional start site
Determines precise starting point for transcription
Response elements
Recognized by regulatory proteins that control initiation of transcription
Enhancers and silencers |
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Term
| The Roles of Transcription Factors |
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Definition
To initiate transcription, eukaryotic RNA polymerase requires the assistance of proteins called transcription factors
General transcription factors are essential for the transcription of all protein-coding genes
In eukaryotes, high levels of transcription of particular genes depend on control elements interacting with specific transcription factors |
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Term
| Alternative splicing of pre-mRNAs |
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Definition
In eukaryotes, a pre-mRNA transcript is processed before it becomes a mature mRNA
When a pre-mRNA has multiple introns and exons, splicing may occur in more than one way
Alternative splicing causes mRNAs to contain different patterns of exons.
Allows same gene to make different proteins
At different stages of development
In different cells types
In response to a change in the environmental conditions |
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Term
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Definition
miRNAs are small RNA molecules that silence the expression of specific mRNAs
Widely found in animals and plants
Important mechanism of mRNA silencing
Effect also called RNA interference (RNAi |
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Term
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Definition
First synthesized as pre-miRNA
Cut by Dicer to release miRNA
Associates with cellular proteins to become RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC)
Directs RISC to specific mRNAs
In some cases binding inhibits translation
Or RISC degrades mRNA |
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Term
| The 5 “superpowers” of cancer |
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Definition
Growth stimulatory signals
−Growth inhibitory signals
−Apoptosis resistance
−Infinite proliferative capacity
−Angiogenic potential |
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Term
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Definition
p53 is a G1 checkpoint protein
Expression of the p53 gene is induced when DNA is damaged
Then, a cell cannot progress from G1 to the S, or synthesis, phase of the cell cycle
If DNA is repaired, a cell may later proceed through the cell cycle |
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Term
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Definition
Deletion- Segment missing
Duplications Section occurs 2 or more times in a row
Inversions -Change in direction along a single chromosome
Translocations- One segment becomes attached to another chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| – 3 or more sets of chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| Most genes have multiple phenotypic effects, a property called |
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Term
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Definition
| In amniocentesis, the liquid that bathes the fetus is removed and tested |
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Term
| chorionic villus sampling (CVS) |
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Definition
| In chorionic villus sampling (CVS), a sample of the placenta is removed and tested |
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Term
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Definition
Modification of a gene or chromosome during egg formation, sperm formation, or early stages of embryo growth alters gene expression in a way that is fixed during an individual’s lifetime
Permanently affect the phenotype of the individual, but they are not permanent over the course of many generations and they do not change the actual DNA sequence |
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