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105 Exam 2
N/A
81
Biology
Undergraduate 1
10/27/2013

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Term
Metabolism
Definition
The sum of all chemical reactions in one organism
Term
Energy
Definition
The capacity to do work
Term
Chemical Work
Definition
making/breaking chemical bonds
Term
Kinetic Work
Definition
move ions, molecules, large stuff in and out of the cell, move a cell
Term
Kinetic energy
Definition
The energy of motion (rolling a ball down a hill)
Term
Potential energy
Definition
Stored energy (ball poised at top of hill, ready to roll down)
Term
Thermal energy
Definition
Heat
Term
Chemical energy
Definition
Potential energy in food or storage molecules
Term
Thermodynamics
Definition
study of energy transformations
Term
1st law of Thermodynamics
Definition
Energy cant be created or destroyed (just converted from one form to another)
Term
2nd law of Thermodynamics
Definition
every energy transfer/transformation increases entropy
Term
Entropy
Definition
heat loss in biological reactions
Term
Exergonic reaction
Definition
breaking a bond, releasing energy
Term
Endergonic reaction
Definition
When making a new bond, energy is required
Term
Where do we get energy for endergonic reactions?
Definition
  • Store energy as potential energy in electrons carried on nucleotides
  • couple endergonic and exergonic reactions to fuel each other
  • energy transfer molecules carry energy until it can be used in the ADP-ATP conversion
Term
Catabolism
Definition
Reactions that release energy by breaking down molecules
Term
Anabolism
Definition
Reactions that require energy to build molecules
Term
Activation energy
Definition
energy required to start a reaction. Enzymes reduce activation energy
Term
enzymes
Definition
proteins that catalyze (speed up) reactions
Term
substrate
Definition
molecule that the enzyme acts on (reactant)
Term
Co-factor
Definition
another binding partner that may control the enzyme
Term
Enzyme steps
Definition
  1. Enzyme binds substrate; forms enzyme-substrate complex
  2. Chemical reaction occurs- enzyme is not bound to product
  3. Enzyme releases product
Term
Saturation (of an enzyme)
Definition
Reached when each enyzme molecule is bound
Term
ligand
Definition
molecule that binds to the protein
Term
Phosphatases
Definition
This enzyme removes phosphate groups
Term
kinases or phosphorylases
Definition
These enymes add phosphate groups
Term
Enviromental factors that effect enzymes
Definition
  • temperature
  • enyzyme concentration
  • substrate concentration
  • pH
Term
How do enzymes work?
Definition
  • Decrease activation energy which speeds up rate of reaction
  • hold two substrates close together, orient them to allow the reaction to occur
  • Rearrange the electrons of the substrate in a way that favors reaction
Term
Cellular respiration
Definition
process where we get energy from our food
Term
Food to ATP
Definition
  • goal is energy in the form of ATP
  • we eat complicated molecules, and break those polymers into monomers (glucose, amino acids, fatty acids)
  • We then break the bonds in the monomers to release energy
  • Convert ADP to ATP to temporarily store the energy for use
Term
Pyruvate
Definition
3 carbon molecule
Term
Glycolysis
Definition
  • 1 glucose becomes 2 pyruvates
  • occurs in cytosol
  • anaerobic
  • requires activation energy
  • 10 step reaction
Term
Transition
Definition
2 pyruvates become 2 Acetly CoAs
Term
Citric acid cycle
Definition
2 Acetyl CoAs become 2 Citric Acid molecules, are broken down
Term
Electron transport
Definition
ATP is produced
Term
Recap Steps: Foods become ATP
Definition
  • Carbs are broken down into gulcose, this starts glycolysis
  • Lipids are broken down into many acetyl CoA molecules, citric acid cycle
  • Proteins are mostly used for anabolism but in starvation can be broken down and either used in glycolysis or citric acid cycle
Term
Why do we need to replicate our cells?
Definition
  • Growth
  • repair
  • reproduction
  • mitosis: somatic cells of humans
  • meiosis: reproductive cells of humans
Term
chromosomes
Definition
  • unit of condensed DNA that replicates as one
  • when replicated they have two strands joined at center by centromere
  • each strand is a chromatid
  • humans have 23 pairs
  • pair is called a homologous pair
Term
chromatin
Definition
unwound DNA during interphase, later winds up for mitosis
Term
Interphase
Definition
normal cell life and prep for mitosis (90% of cellular life spent here)
Term
Mitosis
Definition
one phase of the life cycle in which the nucleus replicates
Term
Cytokinesis
Definition
cell division
Term
G1 phase
Definition
cellular growth. Normal life. DNA in form of chromatin
Term
S Phase
Definition
DNA replicates. At the end of the process you have 2 new strands each is half old and half new
Term
GPhase
Definition
  • prepare for mitosis
  • Protein production may take place
  • DNA still chromatin
  • Nucleus is visible
Term
Mitosis Phase
Definition
  • Process of cell division
  • results in 2 daughter cells
  • spindle of microtubules that helps organize and distribute the chromosomes
Term
centrosome
Definition
pole of spindle apparatus, contains centrioles
Term
centriole
Definition
the anchors of the mitotic spindle, determine direction of microtubules
Term
Prophase
Definition
  • DNA condenses into chromosomes
  • centrosomes migrate to the poles
  • Centrioles build spindle between
  • Nuclear membrane is disappearing
Term
Prometaphase
Definition
  • Nuclear membrane completely disappeared
  • spindle is fully formed
  • Chromosomes attach to spindle
Term
Metaphase
Definition
Chromosomes move to the middle of the cell
Term
Anaphase
Definition
  • Sister chromatids seperate and move to the poles
Term
Telophase
Definition
  • A whole cell's worth of DNA in each of the poles
  • DNA begins to de-condense
  • Nuclear envelope begins to re-form
Term
Cytokinesis
Definition
  • Plasma membrane begins to pull in
  • Two cells seperate
  • Result is two identical daughter cells
Term
What cells cant undergo Mitosis?
Definition
  • Most neurons
  • All skeletal muscle cells
  • Red Blood Cells
Term
Which cells use Mitosis?
Definition
  • All cells, including bacteria
  • for many organisms mitosis = reproduction
Term
Do viruses underogo Mitosis?
Definition
  • No it can't reproduce itself
  • needs host cell to reproduce
  • The virus short circuts the normal control of mitosis
Term
Telomeres
Definition
Sections of DNA on the end of the chromosomes that get shorter each time the chromosomes replicates
Term
Cancer
Definition
  • Loss of cell cycle control
  • Loss of contact-inhibition
Term
Cell cycle control genes
Definition
Control mitosis. Dictate when mitosis on and when prevented
Term
Meiosis
Definition
  • Makes gametes (sperm and egg)
  • Reduce the amount of genetic material in gametes (from 46 to 23 chromosomes)
  • produce gametes that have the same genes but different alleles
Term
Gene
Definition
  • Sequence of DNA responsible for coding for a single functional product
  • i.e. shape of hair line
Term
Allele
Definition
different versions of the same gene
Term
Meiosis 1
Definition
reduces the # of chromosomes
Term
Meiosis 2
Definition
reduces total amount of DNA
Term
Meiosis Crossing Over
Definition
Homologous chromosomes exchange pieces of DNA
Term
Meiosis Prophase 1
Definition
  • Chromosomes condense
  • spindle is forming
  • nuclear membrane is disintegrating
Term
Meiosis Prometaphase
Definition
  • Nuclear membrane disintegrates
  • Bivalents attach to spindle
Term
Meiosis Metaphase 1
Definition
Bivalents line up at the middle of the cell
Term
Meiosis Anaphase 1
Definition
  • Bivalents seperate and move to poles
  • sister chromatids remain attached
Term
Meiosis Telophase 1 and Cytokinesis
Definition
  • Chromosomes arrive at the poles
  • Nuclear membrane begins to reform
  • Cell pinches together and separates
  • Two haploid daughter cells result
  • Chromosomes decondense
Term
Meiosis Prophase II
Definition
  • Chromosomes condense
  • Spindle forms
  • nuclear membrane disintegrates
Term
Meiosis Prometaphase II
Definition
  • Chromatids attach to spindle
  • Nuclear membrane disintegrates completely
Term
Meiosis Metaphase II
Definition
Sister chromatids line up at the middle of the cell
Term
Meiosis Anaphase II
Definition
Sister chromatids are pulled apart by the spindle fibers, move toward opposite poles
Term
Meiosis Telophase and Cytokinesis II
Definition
  • Sister chromatids reach poles
  • nuclear membrane reappears
  • cells pinch off
  • 4 haploid daughter cells result
  • chromosomes decondense
Term
Problems with Meiosis
Definition
  • Nondisjunction: chromosomes don't seperate correctly resulting in missing or extra copies of a chromosome
Term
Homozygous
Definition
Same allele on both chromosomes
Term
Heterozygous
Definition
Different alleles on the two chromosomes
Term
Epistasis
Definition
Alleles of one gene mask or alter the expression of another gene
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