Autonomy

1)      venture into satisfying and meaningful social relationships

2)      engage in playful problem-solving

3)   face future w/ outlook of hopefulness and assertiveness

DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

(SELF)

1) Self-Control

2) Elaboration of Locomotion

3) Language Development (language & communication skills)

4) Fantasy Play

***The Psychosocial  Crisis that occurs during toddlerhood.

Refers to the child's struggle to astablish a sense of separateness without disrupting the bonds of affection and protection that are critical to a young child's physical survival and emotional connection to the family.

In many culture, expectations are brought about by birth of next child.

Autonomy VS Shame & Doubt

Locomotion

1) Remaining close to object of attachment

2) Investigating environment

3) Coping with stressful situations

1. Space
2. Distance
3. Relationship of One Place to the Next

***During toddlerhood, this may serve as a physical basis for subsequent thinking about

• the future (moving ahead through space) and  
• the past (moving backward through space) 

Sensorimotor Exploration

Qualitative changes in locomotive behavior are not simply a result of maturation in the cerebral cortex.

According to Dynamic Systems Theory, 5 factors emerge and integrate through repeated action to support emergence of motor skills:

1) Physical Characteristics of limbs, joints, and muscles involved 

2) Body Weight and Muscle Mass Changes

3) CNS Capacities (new)

         -improve coordination of feedback from limbs

         -guide amount of effort needed to achieve motor goal

4) Behavioral Goal (nature of)

5) Practice Opportunities

Some landmarks of motor development that are reached between ages 2 to 6 include: (5)

As walking becomes a more comfortable form of locomotion, new skills are added to child’s repertoire, where _____ & _____  areusually the first to emerge (the latter occuring usually by age 4).

• Running
• Jumping

As their physical coordination improves, children engage in a new repertoire of large-muscle activities (climbing, sliding, pounding, rough-and-tumble play.

Locomotor Play provides immediate benefits to children in terms of physical fitness, including: (3)

1) increased bone density

2) cardiovascular fitness

3) flexibility

Self-Concept

*children lacking muscle strength/coordination experience strong feelings of frustrations as they struggle to perform new tasks.

1. Semiotic Thinking

2. Communicative Competence

3. Language Environment

***A transitional period during which the sensorimotor schemes that were developed during infancy are represented internally.

Jean Piaget described this stage as occurring during the years from age 2 to 5 or 6.

Preoperational Thought

Semiotic (Representational) Thinking

***In Semiotic Thinking, _______ are usually related in some way to the objects for which they stand  (ex. the cross may represent Christianity), Where

_____ stand for things in a more abstract, arbitrary way, and

_____ are signs which stand for the object.

Symbols

• Signs
• Words

Representational Skills

(MISS L)

1) Mental Images

2) Imitation in Absence of Model

3) Symbolic Drawing

4) Symbolic Play

5) Language

1. Language

2. Fantasy Play

***The ability to use all the aspects of language in one's culture.

These include: (6)

Communicative Competence

1. Producing Sounds 
2. Understanding Systems of Meaning
3. Rules of Word/Sentence Formation
4. Vocabulary
5. Pragmatics; adjust to social setting to produce/interpret communicate
6. Expressing Thoughts in Written/Oral Form

Communication

1) Language Milestones

2) Language Environment

Language Milestones

1) Vocabulary & expanded use of words with meaning

2) Two-Word Sentence formation

3) More complex sentence formation

4) Grammatical Transformations

1) acceleration in single-word production 

2) predominancy of nouns in vocabulary followed by addition of verbs, adjectives, and prepositions

3) two-word utterances followed by longer strings of words organized by use of grammatical rules that include more meaning, such as possession, plural, and past/present/future

Vocabulary

Information-processing technique in which children quickly form an initial, partial understanding of a word's meaning, relating the new word to the known vocabulary by linking it to known words and concepts that are already understood.

• relating to known vocab
• resuructuring known-word storage space and its related conceptual categories

Fast-Mapping

***Without word-by-word tutoring, children accumulate numerous samples of their culture's language from the speech they hear and attach a minimally satisfactory definition to each word or phrase (fast-mapping).

This vocabulary burst is associated with ________ in word recognition.

Processing Speed

***Two-word sentences used by children that omit many parts of speech but convey meaning which are essential for communication and allowing for less reliance on gestures and actions.

By 16 months of age, few children make two-word sentences, by by age ______ almost all children can make them.

Telegraphic Speech

• 30 months

***Braine (1976) analyzed first word combinations spoken by children, in English, Samoan, Finnish, Hebrew, and Swedish, with the goal of identifying the kinds of rules or pattern that governed these early combinations.

10 patterns of word combination were found in those early language samples:

1. Referencing                     See +X (see mother)
2. Description                      Hot +X (hot stove)
3. Possession                       X has a Y (Billy has a bottle)
4. Plurality                           Two +X (two dogs)
5. Repetition                        More +X (more up)
6. Disappearance                 All gone +X (all gone milk)
7. Negation                         No +X (no sleep)
8. Actor-Action Relations     Person +X (Daddy sleep)
9. Location                         X + here (Grandma here)
10. Requests                         Have +X (have it, ball)

***Early language is closely ties to the representation of ___________, the activities that dominate the child's life, such as eating, sleeping, playing games with mommy, daddy, or siblings, going places, coming back home, etc. Expresses the properties and relationships of the objects and people that are important in a child's life.

Brain (1976) found that although he could identify some common patterns of word combinations, they were...

Sensorimotor Schemes

...not guided by grammatical categories of the spoken language, but rather by the meanings the child wished to express.

***Rules of arrangement of words and phrases in a sentence and for the inflections that convey gender, tense, and number.

By combining words according to a set of rules for a given language, a person can produce limitless number of messages that can be understood by another person.

Remarkably, by the age of 4, children appear to be able to structure their sentences using most of these rules without __________.

Grammar

• direct instruction

Rote Memory

The tendency to use a grammar rule for the formation of regular verbs or nouns when one cannot remember the irregular form. 

Occurs once children learn the rule for expressing the  past tense by adding ed. As child's vocabulary grows, the need to apply the rule to unfamiliar words declines.

Overregularize

***Developmental Milestones at 

• 12 weeks:
• 16 weeks:
• 20 weeks:
• 6 months:
• 8 months: (2)
• 10 months: (2)

• 12 wks:    Cooing (vowel-like sound)
• 16 wks:    Recognize sound of own Name
• 20 wks:    Cooing interspersed w/ Consonant Sounds
• 6 mo:       Babbling
• 8 mo:       Meaningful Gestures; Understand some words/phrases
• 10 mo:     Tries to Imitate Sounds; Expanded Word Comprehension

***Developmental Milestones at

• 12 mo:
• 16 mo: (2)
• 24 mo: (2)
• 30 mo: (2)
• 3 yrs:
• 4 yrs:

• 12 mo:    Understands 50 words & Simple Commands
• 16 mo:    40-180 Words; Increased Comprehension
• 24 mo:    300+ Words; 2-Word Phrases
• 30 mo:    550+ Words; 3-5 Word Sentences
• 3 yrs:      May know 1000+ Words
• 4 yrs:      Language Established

1. Group Identity
2. Intimacy
3. Generativity

1. Resolving Conflicts
2. Building a Sense of Cohesiveness within Groups

Language Environment

1) Interaction & Bilingualism

2) Scaffolding & Other Strategies for Enhancement

3) Reading & Language Games

Interaction Opportunities

***An interactive human being can respond to a child's questions, provide info, react unexpectedly and surprise child, explain plans or strategies, and offer praise or criticism.

The frequency and quality of parent-child interactions are closely associated with children's ________.

Social & Cognitive Competence

Bilingualism

The alternate use of two or more languages or varieties of language, especially within the same discourse.

Begins at very early age; bi-lingual children alternating languages to fill in gaps in vocabulary when word in one language is unknown.

Code Switching

Certain characteristics of a language partner have been shown to facilitate a child’s language acquisition and communication skills.

Caregivers have been observed to modify their speech in the following ways so they are more likely to be understood: (7)

1) Simplifying Utterances

2) Emphasize Here-and-Now

3) Restricted Vocabulary

4) Paraphrasing

5) Simple, Well-Formed Sentences

6) Frequent Repetitions

7) Slow Rate Speech w/ Pauses

1) amount of talking

2) use of a varied vocabulary

3) early use of gestures to convey meaning

4) use of more complex sentences

Question-Asking

1) Nature of parental responses

2) Way parents, themselves, use question-asking in daily conversation

• Curiosity-Based
• Procedural Matters

1. Explanations
2. Abstract Concept Formation

Competence

e.g. -using name of toy only if experimenter appeared confident

      -able to assess expertise and confidence of the language partner before

        incorporating words into vocabulary

1. Upward Scaffolding
2. Mutual Regulation

***A process through which a child and an adult attempt to arrive at a shared understanding about a communication, at which point the adult interacts so as to expand or enrich the child's communicative competence.

• closely related to Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development

Scaffolding

1) Modifying speech somewhat

2) Modeling more complex, accurate speech

1. Expansion
2. Prompting

***The elaboration of the child’s expressions.

CHILD: Doggie wag.

ADULT: Yes, the dog is wagging her tail.

Expansion

***When the parent urges the child to say more, often in the form of a question.

CHILD: More crackel.

ADULT: You want more what?

Prompting

Rituals

1. Reading Aloud
2. Language Games

Family Conversation

When children create characters and situations that may have a very private meaning; no need to be made comprehensible to an audience.

Important as children may have strong feelings and lack words to express them; can express & soothe feelings in world of imagination, though not shared in conversation; requires semiotic thinking

FANTASY PLAY

Sensory exploration and motor manipulation that produce pleasure.

• During infancy, often consists of repetition of motor activity (e.g. sucking toes, dropping spoon from high chair)
• Towards end of infancy, includes deliberate imitation of parental acts, usually by sight of parent's activity
• During toddlerhood, imitate parental activities when alone

Sensorimotor Play

In the beginning of symbolic play, a vivid mental image of an action permits child to copy what they recall instead of what they see.

Before the period of ________, children do not really pretend b/c they cannot let one thing stand for something else.

Preoperational Thought

The natural way in which children understand each other's behavior.

In day-to-day functioning, suggests that beliefs, desires, and actions are logically linked.

A child's ability to pretend provides insight into it.

Theory of Mind

1) Action component becomes more comples as children integrate a sequence of actions

2) Children's focus shifts from self to fantasies involving others and creation of multiple roles

3) Play involves use of substitute objects, including objects only pretending to have, and eventually invention of complex characters/situations

4) Play becomes more organized/planned, and play leaders emerge

1) Solitary Pretense

2) Social Play

3) Social Pretend Play

Solitary Pretense

Social Play

Social Pretend Play

1) Piaget

2) Vygotsky

3) Erickson

Theorist who emphasized the assimilative value of play. Through fantasy and symbolic play, children are able to make meaning of experiences and events that are beyond their full comprehension.

Fantasy play as a private world to which rules of social convention and logic of physical world do not necessarily apply

Frees child from immediacy of reality, permitting mental manipulations and modifications of objects and events.

Piaget

Theorist who believed play creates a zone of proximal development in which child always behaves beyond his average age, above his daily behavior.

Cognitive process that captures a foreshadowing of child’s next higher level of functioning. Children address areas where they do not yet feel competent in their lives and try to act as if they were.

Play contains all developmental tendencies in a condensed form and is itself a major source of development.

Vygotsky

Theorist who considered fantasy play vital in promoting personality and social development. A mechanism for dramatizing the psychological conflicts that children struggle with, such as angry feelings towards parents/siblings, or jealousy over friends toys.

Often not only represents the problem but also offers a solution, so that children experience some new sense of resolution and reduction in the tension associated with the conflict.

Erickson

Self-Regulation

1. Control of Impulses
2. Self-Directed Goal Attainment

1. Power Assertion
2. Love Withdrawal
3. Inductions

Power Assertion

Love Withdrawal

Relational Aggression

1. Empathy
2. Temperament
3. Mother-Infant Attachment Quality

A child's ability to supress a dominant response and perform a subdominant response instead.

ex.) wants to shout out loud, but whispers instead b/c sees grandpa naps

Effortful Control

Delay of Gratification

1. better scholastic performance
2. more successful social functioning
3. better predictor of academic performance than IQ

Self-Regulated Goal Attainment

Autonomy

Shame & Doubt

Imitation

Mirror Neuron System

• Will
• Compulsion

The capacity of the mind to direct and control action; closely linked to idea of self-directed goal attainment. 

Vital to emerging capacities for self-expression, self-direction, and eventually self-fulfillment.

Will

Repetitive behaviors that are motivated by impulse or by restrictions on the expression of it; they are nonspontaneous and unchanging; close relative to the ritualization developed in toddlerhood.

Reflects pervasive anxiety. Thoughts impose themselves, actions must be carried out over and over.

Compulsions

Obsessions

1. Intelligence
2. Cognition
3. Academic Achievement
4. Social Competence

1. Poor Nutrition
2. Inadequate Health Care
3. Limited Parental Education
4. Non-Stimulating Parent-Child Interactions
5. Harsh Punishment
6. Living in High-Risk Neighborhoods

1. Domestic Violence
2. Community Violence
3. Physical Abuse
4. Sexual Abuse
5. Emotional Abuse
6. Neglect
7. Accidents
8. Natural Disaster

1. Interpersonal Relationships
2. Affect Regulation
3. Self-Development

Core deficit in traumatized children characterized by

• insecure attachments
• aggressive w/ siblings and peers
• social withdrawal
• less likely to show sadness or concern for peer in distress
• more likely to be distressed &/or threaten another child
• less pleasure or interest in free play

Interpersonal Relationship Problems

Core deficit in traumatized children characterized by

• less flexibility/responsiveness to environmental environments
• tendency to be skewed toward negative emotions
• difficulty controlling emotions
• emotional blunting
• early problems which may represent later mental health issues

Affect Regulation Difficulties

Core deficit in traumatized children characterized by

• poor self-esteem/-understanding
• less talk about self and feelings
• more negative response when looking in mirror
• less persistence in confronting problem-solving situations

Poor Self-Development

1. Level of traumatic exposure
2. # of traumatic stressors
3. Duration of experience
4. Closeness of relationship to perpetrator