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archer test 3
archer test 3
196
Psychology
Undergraduate 3
11/10/2011

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Term
a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience
Definition
learning
Term
a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response
Definition
classical conditioning
Term
example of classical conditioning
Definition
pavlovs dogs, at first the dogs would only salivate in the presence of meat; soon they would salivate once they heard the bell.
Term
a stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest
Definition
neutral stimulus; an example of this is the bell in pavlovs experiment
Term
a stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned.
Definition
unconditioned stimulus; in pavlovs experiment the meat is the unconditioned stimulus
Term
a response that is natural and needs no training
Definition
unconditioned response; in pavlovs experiment the UR is the salivation in response to the meat
Term
a once neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus.
Definition
conditioned stimulus; in pavlovs experiment the bell has evolved from a neutral stimulus to a conditioned stimulus.
Term
a response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus
Definition
conditioned response; in pavlovs experiment the CR is salivation that occurs as a response to the CS (bell)
Term
a basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears
Definition
extinction
Term
the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning
Definition
spontaneous recovery
Term
a process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response.
Definition
stimulus generalization
Term
the process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not; the ability to differentiate between two stimuli.
Definition
stimulus discrimination
Term
___ involves changes brought about by experience; whereas maturation describes changes resulting from biological development.
Definition
learning
Term
___ is the name of the scientist responsible for discovering the learning phenomenon known as ____ conditioning, whereby an organism learns a response to a stimulus to which it normally would not respond
Definition
pavlov; classical
Term
learning to which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences
Definition
operant conditioning
Term
responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated
Definition
law of effect
Term
the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated.
Definition
reinforcement
Term
any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again
Definition
reinforcer
Term
a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response
Definition
positive reinforcer
Term
an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future.
Definition
negative reinforcer
Term
a stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again
Definition
punishment
Term
giving a raise for good performance is an example of ___
Definition
positive reinforcement
Term
restricting a teenagers access to a car due to breaking curfew is an example of _____
Definition
negative punishment
Term
yelling at a teenager when she steals a bracelet is an example of ____
Definition
positive punishment
Term
applying ointment to relieve an itchy rash leads to a higher future likelihood of applying the ointment is an example of ___
Definition
negative reinforcement
Term
reinforcement ___ the frequency of the behavior preceding it; punishment ___ the frequency of the behavior preceding it.
Definition
increases; decreases
Term
the application of a positive stimulus brings about an increase in the frequency of a behavior and is referred to as ___
Definition
positive reinforcement
Term
the application of a negative stimulus decreases or reduces the frequency of a behavior and is called ___
Definition
positive punishment
Term
the removal of a negative stimulus that results in an increase in the frequency of behavior is ____
Definition
negative reinforcement
Term
the removal of a positive stimulus that decreases the frequency of a behavior is ___
Definition
negative punishment
Term
different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior
Definition
schedules of reinforcement
Term
reinforcing of a behavior every time it occurs
Definition
continuous reinforcement schedule
Term
reinforcing of a behavior some but not all the time
Definition
partial reinforcement schedule
Term
a schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses is made
Definition
fixed ratio schedule
Term
a schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number
Definition
variable ratio schedule
Term
a schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low.
Definition
fixed-interval schedule
Term
a schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed.
Definition
variable-interval schedule
Term
this type of schedule results in relatively short pauses in responding after reinforcement is provided.
Definition
fixed ratio schedule
Term
in this type of schedule responding occurs at a high, steady rate
Definition
variable ratio schedule
Term
this type of schedule results in typically long pauses in responding after reinforcement is provided
Definition
fixed-interval schedule
Term
this type of schedule results in responding at a steady rate
Definition
variable interval schedule
Term
the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Definition
shaping
Term
a formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones
Definition
behavior modification
Term
an approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning
Definition
cognitive learning theory
Term
learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it.
Definition
latent learning
Term
learning by observing the behavior of another person or model
Definition
observational learning
Term
the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information
Definition
memory
Term
the initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant
Definition
sensory memory
Term
memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds
Definition
short-term memory
Term
memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve.
Definition
long-term memory
Term
reflects information from the visual system
Definition
iconic memory
Term
___ stores auditory information coming from the ears
Definition
echoic memory
Term
a meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short-term memory
Definition
chunk
Term
the repetition of information that has entered short-term memory
Definition
rehearsal
Term
___ occurs when the information is considered and organized in some fashion
Definition
elaborative rehearsal
Term
organizational strategies that can vastly improve our retention of information
Definition
mnemonics
Term
a set of active, temporary memory stores that actively manipulate and rehearse information
Definition
working memory
Term
which the ability to recall information in a list depends on where in the list an item appears
Definition
serial position effect
Term
occurs when items presented early in a list are remembered better
Definition
primacy effect
Term
occurs when items presented late in a list are remembered best.
Definition
recency effect
Term
memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and the like
Definition
declarative memory
Term
memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a baseball
Definition
procedural memory aka nondeclarative memory
Term
memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts
Definition
semantic memory
Term
declarative memory can be subdivided into ___ and ___
Definition
semantic memory; episodic memory
Term
memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context
Definition
episodic memory
Term
mental representations of clusters of interconnected information
Definition
semantic networks
Term
activating one memory triggers the activation of related memories in a process known as ____
Definition
spreading activation
Term
psychologists search for the ___, the term for the physical memory trace that corresponds to a memory
Definition
engram
Term
the ___, a part of the brains limbic system plays a central role in the consolidation of memories.
Definition
hippocampus
Term
where is the hippocampus located
Definition
located within the brains medial temporal lobes just behind the eyes
Term
the ___ aids in the initial encoding of information, acting as a kind of neurological email system
Definition
hippocampus
Term
the ___, a part of the limbic system, is involved with memories involving emotions
Definition
amygdala
Term
___, shows that certain neural pathways become easily excited while a new response is being learned
Definition
long term potentiation
Term
a process in which memories become fixed and stable in long-term memory
Definition
consolidation
Term
the physical stuff of memory produced by a complex of biochemical and neural processes.
Definition
engram
Term
the inability to recall information that one realizes one knows - a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long term memory
Definition
tip of the tongue phenomenon
Term
memory task in which specific information must be retrieved
Definition
recall
Term
memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives.
Definition
recognition
Term
the theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed
Definition
levels of processing theory
Term
according to this approach, the depth of info processing during exposure to material - meaning the degree to which it is analyzed and consided - is critical; the greater the intensity of its initial processing, the more likely we are to remember it.
Definition
levels of processing theory
Term
intentional or conscious recollection of information
Definition
explicit memory
Term
memories of which people are not consciously aware but that can affect subsequent performance and behavior
Definition
implicit memory
Term
a phenomenon in which exposure to a word or concept later makes it easier to recall related information, even when there is no conscious memory of the word or concept.
Definition
priming
Term
memories centered on a specific, important, or surprising event that are so vivid it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event.
Definition
flashbulb memories
Term
process in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events
Definition
constructive process
Term
organized bodies of info stored in memory that bias the way new info is interpreted, stored, and recalled
Definition
schemas
Term
our recollections of circumstances and episodes from our own lives
Definition
autobiographical memories
Term
the loss of information in memory through its nonuse
Definition
decay
Term
the phenomenon by which info in memory disrupts the recall of other info.
Definition
interference
Term
forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory
Definition
cue-dependent memory
Term
interference in which info learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material
Definition
proactive interference
Term
interference in which there is difficulty in the recall of info learned earlier because of later exposure to different material.
Definition
retroactive interference
Term
an illness characterized in part by severe memory problems
Definition
alzheimers disease
Term
memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties
Definition
amnesia
Term
amnesia in which memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event
Definition
retrograde amnesia
Term
amnesia in which memory is lost for events that follow an injury
Definition
anterograde amnesia
Term
a disease that afflicts long term alcoholics, leaving some abilities intact but includes hallucinations and a tendency to repeat the same story.
Definition
korsakoff syndrome
Term
representations in the mind of an object or event
Definition
mental images
Term
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people.
Definition
concepts
Term
typical, highly representative examples of a concept
Definition
prototypes
Term
formal reasoning in which people draw a conclusion from a set of assumptions
Definition
syllogistic reasoning
Term
a rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem
Definition
algorithm
Term
a thinking strategy that may lead us to a solution to a problem or a decision, but - unlike algorithms - may sometimes lead to errors.
Definition
heuristic
Term
a rule we apply when we judge people by the degree to which they represent a certain category or group of people
Definition
representativeness heuristic
Term
the ___ involves judging the probability of an event on the basis of how easily the event can be recalled from memory
Definition
availability heuristic
Term
___ require the problem solver to rearrange or recombine elements in a way that will satisfy a certain condition
Definition
arrangement problems
Term
in ___ a person must identify the existing relationships among the elements presented and then construct a new relationship among them.
Definition
problems of inducing structure
Term
___ consist of an initial state, goal state, and a method of changing the initial state into the goal state
Definition
transformation problems
Term
involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists
Definition
means-end analysis
Term
a sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another
Definition
insight
Term
the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use
Definition
functional fixedness
Term
the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to exist
Definition
mental set
Term
the tendency to seek out and weight more heavily info that supports ones initial hypothesis and to ignore contradictory info that supports alternative hypothesis or solutions
Definition
confirmation bias
Term
the ability to generate unusual , yet nonetheless appropriate, responses to problems or questions
Definition
divergent thinking
Term
the ability to produce responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic
Definition
convergent thinking
Term
the communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules
Definition
language
Term
the system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed
Definition
grammar
Term
the capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges
Definition
intelligence
Term
the single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence
Definition
g or g-factor
Term
intelligence that reflects information processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory
Definition
fluid intelligence
Term
the accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that are learned through experience and can be applied in problem-solving situations
Definition
crystallized intelligence
Term
Gardners intelligence theory that proposes that there are 8 different spheres of intelligence
Definition
theory of multiple of intelligences
Term
according to sternberg, intelligence related to overall success in living
Definition
practical intelligence
Term
the set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions
Definition
emotional intelligence
Term
tests devised to quantify a persons level of intelligence
Definition
intelligence tests
Term
the age for which a given level of performance is average or typical
Definition
mental age
Term
a score that takes into account an individuals mental and chronological ages.
Definition
intelligence quotient (IQ)
Term
IQ =
Definition
(mental age / chronological age) x 100
Term
the property by which tests measure consistently what they are trying to measure
Definition
reliability
Term
the property by which tests actually measure what they are supposed to measure
Definition
validity
Term
standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one persons score on a test with the scores of other individuals who have taken the same test
Definition
norms
Term
a condition characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills
Definition
mental retardation (or intellectual disability)
Term
the most common cause of mental retardation in newborns, occurring when the mother uses alcohol during pregnancy
Definition
fetal alcohol syndrome
Term
mental retardation in which no apparent biological defect exists but there is a history of retardation in the family
Definition
familial retardation
Term
the 2-4% segment of the population who have IQ scores greater than 130
Definition
intellectually gifted
Term
a test that does not discriminate against the members of any minority group
Definition
culture fair IQ test
Term
a measure of the degree to which a characteristic is related to genetic, inherited factors
Definition
heritability
Term
any enduring change in behavior that results from an experience
Definition
learning
Term
learning that certain events occur together. example eating chocolate = happiness
Definition
associative learning
Term
a learning process that occurs through association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
Definition
classical conditioning
Term
learning that occurs from +/- reinforcement/punishment to influence behavior
Definition
operant conditioning
Term
learning through association; correlation
Definition
classical conditioning
Term
learning by observation
Definition
observational learning
Term
how is extincting achieved in classical conditioning
Definition
repeatedly presenting conditioned stimulus without unconditioned stimulus
Term
explain spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning
Definition
after extinction, presentation of cs can still cause response
Term
who began operant conditioning
Definition
edward thorndike
Term
responses that lead to satisfying conclusions are more likely to be repeated.
Definition
law of effect
Term
how did bf skinner extend the basic law of effect?
Definition
said that any response which is followed by a reinforcing stimulus will occur more frequently in the future.
Term
general model for operant conditioning
Definition
sd - r - sr
discriminating stimulus - response - reinforcing stimulus
Term
in operant conditioning, when does extinction happen?
Definition
when the behavior stops being reinforced
Term
putting together a series of behaviors that have all been shaped
Definition
chaining
Term
is variable or fixed interval schedule more resistant to extinction
Definition
variable
Term
what are primary reinforcers
Definition
basic biological reinforcers such as food and water
Term
what are secondary reinforcers?
Definition
items that had to be learned; such as money
Term
research shows that ___ is far more successful than ___
Definition
reinforcement; punishment
Term
problems with punishment
Definition
1. tends to suppress behavior only under certain circumstances
2. can create anxiety, anger, or hosility
3. usually punishment does not suggest an alternative
4. modeling as a way to solve problems (physical punishment can lead to agressive behavior)
5. focuses attention on unwanted behavior
Term
when will punishment be most effective
Definition
1. apply swiftly
2. just severe enough to be effective
3. be consistent
4. logical consequences
5. explain punishment; give alternatives
Term
what are the contents of long term memory
Definition
procedural and declarative memory
Term
what makes up declarative memory
Definition
1. semantic memory: info stored away, such as jeopardy questions
2. episodic memory: may or may not be equivalent to what really happened; is more of a reconstructive process
Term
focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli
Definition
attention
Term
certain neural pathways become more easily activated
Definition
long term potentiation
Term
process by which memories become fixed and stable in LTM
Definition
consolidation
Term
stimuli that allow us to more easily recall info in LTM
Definition
retrieval cues
Term
loss of info through non-use
Definition
decay
Term
mental activities associated with processing, understanding, and communicating info
Definition
thinking (cognition)
Term
steps to problem solving
Definition
preparation -> production -> judgement

or
1. define the problem
2. devise a strategy
3. implement the strategy
4. evaluate and revise
Term
problems where one must discover the relationships among the parts of the problem. example: ottffsse _ _ _
Definition
problems of inducing structure
Term
problems where one must arrange parts in order to establish some criteria. example: arrange glasses in full - empty order
Definition
problems of arrangement
Term
problems where one must carry out sequence of transformations to reach a specific goal; initial state to goal state.
Definition
problems of transformation
Term
the tendency to ignore statistics and focus on the particulars
Definition
base rate bias
Term
systematic procedures guarenteed to find solutions if correctly applied
Definition
algorithms
Term
mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that may lead to solution; does not guarentee solution but might increase the chances
Definition
heuristics
Term
repeatedly testing the difference between the desired outcome and what currently exists
Definition
means end analysis
Term
sudden flash of understanding
Definition
insight
Term
when we continue to work on a problem from the same ways we have used in the past.
Definition
set effects
Term
when we just seek out info that confirms our original hypothesis
Definition
confirmation bias
Term
making a decision based on how wee the individual/idea/event matches a particular prototype
Definition
representative heuristic
Term
judging the probability of an event based on how easily we can recall info in memory
Definition
availability heuristic
Term
spearmans one item that defines intelligence
Definition
g factor
Term
gardners multiple intelligences
Definition
1. linguistic
2. logical-mathmatical
3. spatial
4. bodily-kinesthetic
5. musical
6. interpersonal
7. intrapersonal
8. naturalistic.
Term
steinbergs triarchic theory
Definition
conventional (analytical)
creative practical
Term
extent to which the test yields consistent scores
Definition
reliability
Term
extent to which the test measures what it is supposed to measure
Definition
validity
Term
ways to measure reliability
Definition
test - retest and split half comparison
Term
ways to measure validity
Definition
content and criterion (comparison against others)
Term
system that encodes, stores, and retrieves info
Definition
memory
Term
working memory =
Definition
short term memory
Term
fleeting memory of an image, sound, or other sensation
Definition
sensory memory
Term
brief visual image =
Definition
iconic memory
Term
duration and capacity of sensory memory
Definition
fractions of a second; 9-12 units
Term
limited capacity, limited duration system where information is first interpreted for meaning
Definition
short term memory
Term
duration and capacity of short term memory
Definition
20-30 seconds; 5-9 units
Term
grouping familiar stimuli as a single unit
Definition
chunking
Term
Processor of conscious experience
“Mental workspace”
Deals with information from sensory memory as well as information retrieved from LTM
Definition
working memory
Term
4 things about working memory
Definition
1. Central executive
2. Phonological loop (acoustic encoding)
3. Visual sketchpad (visual/spatial encoding)
4. Episodic buffer
Term
long term memory has ___ capacity and duration
Definition
unlimited
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