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Unit 1 BIOS 2400
CH. 1, 2, 3
357
Physiology
Undergraduate 1
01/21/2013

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Term
Physiology
Definition
study of biological function
Term
Set point
Definition
specific range for body temp, blood sugar, tension on a tendon, etc.
Term
Effectors
Definition
Particular muscles or glands that regulate the body back to its set point
Term
Integrating center
Definition
Receives information from many different sensors that increases or decreases effector activity
Term
Negative feedback loop
Definition
Negative or reverse regulation that lowers the level of deviation from the set point (air conditioner in house)
Term
Positive feedback
Definition
action of effectors amplifies those changes that stimulated the effectors
(ex. Thermostat increases heat production in response to rise in temperature)
Term
Intrinsic regulation
Definition
"Built-in" to the organs being regulated
Term
Extrinsic regulation
Definition
Regulation of an organ by the nervous and endocrine systems
Term
Hormones
Definition
chemical regulators in the body
Term
Target organs
Definition
Specific organs that respond to a particular hormone
Term
Muscle tissue
Definition
Tissue specialized for contraction
Term
Skeletal muscle
Definition
tissue generally attached to bones at both ends by means of tendons

Contractions produce movements of the skeleton

Myofibers

STRIATED- Gradient of strength of contraction
Term
Cardiac muscle
Definition
Muscle is only found in the heart

Myocardial cells

Intercalated discs

"Whole-hearted" contraction
Stimulation of one cell stimulates an entire mass
Term
Myocardial cells
Definition
short, branched, intimately connected muscle cells that form a continuous fabric
Term
Smooth muscle
Definition
Muscle tissue found in the digestive tract, blood vessles, bronchioles, ducts of urinary and reprod. systems

No STRIATIONS
Term
Nervous tissue
Definition
Tissue that consists of neurons and supporting cells
Term
Neurons
Definition
Nerve cells

Generate and conduct electrical signals and events
Term
Supporting cells
Definition
Glial cells

Provide neurons with anatomical and functional support
Term
Epithelial Tissue
Definition
Tissue that forms membranes that cover and line body surfaces and glands
Term
Exocrine glands
Definition
Secrete chemicals through a duct that leads to the outside of a membrane and to the outside of the body surface
Term
Endocrine glands
Definition
Secrete hormones into the blood
Term
Muscle tissue
Definition
Tissue specialized for contraction
Term
Skeletal muscle
Definition
tissue generally attached to bones at both ends by means of tendons

Contractions produce movements of the skeleton

Myofibers

STRIATED- Gradient of strength of contraction
Term
Cardiac muscle
Definition
Muscle is only found in the heart

Myocardial cells

Intercalated discs

"Whole-hearted" contraction
Stimulation of one cell stimulates an entire mass
Term
Myocardial cells
Definition
short, branched, intimately connected muscle cells that form a continuous fabric
Term
Smooth muscle
Definition
Muscle tissue found in the digestive tract, blood vessles, bronchioles, ducts of urinary and reprod. systems

No STRIATIONS
Term
Nervous tissue
Definition
Tissue that consists of neurons and supporting cells
Term
Neurons
Definition
Nerve cells

Generate and conduct electrical signals and events
Term
Supporting cells
Definition
Glial cells

Provide neurons with anatomical and functional support
Term
Epithelial Tissue
Definition
Tissue that forms membranes that cover and line body surfaces and glands
Term
Exocrine glands
Definition
Secrete chemicals through a duct that leads to the outside of a membrane and to the outside of the body surface
Term
Endocrine glands
Definition
Secrete hormones into the blood
Term
Simple membranes
Definition
epithelial membranes only one cell layer thick
Term
Stratified membranes
Definition
epithelial membranes composed of a number of cell layers
Term
Squamous
Definition
epithelial cells that are flattened
Term
Cubodial
Definition
epithelial tissues that are as wide as they are tall
Term
Columnar
Definition
epithelial tissues that are taller than they are wide
Term
Connective tissue
Definition
Tissue that has large amounts of extracellular material in the spaces between the tissue's cells
Term
Connective tissue proper
Definition
Loose connective tissue
collagen
dense fibrous connective tissue
Term
What is found in the nucleus of an atom?
Definition
Protons & Neutrons
Term
Isotope
Definition
Two structures with identical molecular formula, but different structures/characteristics
Term
What determines the Atomic Number
Definition
# of Protons
Term
What determines the Atomic Mass of an element
Definition
# of protons+neutrons
Term
Molecule
Definition
Group of atoms bonded together
Term
How do covalent bonds form?
Definition
Atoms of a molecule share electrons
Term
Nonpolar-covalent bond
Definition
Atoms share electrons equally
Term
Examples of non-polar molecules
Definition
CO2, CCL4, Oxygen, Lipids
Term
Hydrophobic
Definition
Insoluble in water
(Non-polar molecules)
Term
Ionic bond
Definition
Cation (+) bonds with anions (-)
Term
Polar covalent bond
Definition
Electrons create a polarity (unequal sharing of electrons) across molecule
Term
Polarity
Definition
Unequal sharing of electrons
Term
Intracellular Fluid
Definition
All body fluid inside cells
Term
Extracellular Fluid
Definition
All fluid outside of the cell
Term
Brain Cells
Definition
G0 (Cells have stopped dividing)
Term
Cyclin
Definition
Checkpoint Protein
Needs to be in high levels of concentration to move cell into S phase
(similar to protein kinases)
Term
DNA Replication
Definition
Stage S
Term
Meiosis
Definition
Haploid cells (23 chromosomes) Gametes
Crossing Over (prophase I)
Metaphase I
Telephase I
lacks homologous chromosomes
Term
M
Definition
Cell stage
Only stage not in interphase
Term
Gap 1
Definition
Cytoplasm gets larger
Term
Centrosome
Definition
Organizing center for tubulin (microtubules)
Term
Kinetochore
Definition
Spindle fibers attach to chromosome
Term
Centriole
Definition
Pairs of structures
Term
Cytokinesis
Definition
Pinch off cells
Term
Centromere
Definition
Where chromosomes attach
Term
Homologous
Definition
Meiosis
Term
I or II
Definition
Meiosis
Term
4 chromatid
Homologous chromosomes
Definition
Prophase I
Term
Haploid cells
Definition
Telophase I
Term
spindle apparatus
Definition
Prophase
Term
Chromosomes align along mid-line of cell
Definition
Metaphase
Term
Centromere splits
Chromosomes separate
Definition
Anaphase
Term
Allele
Definition
Alternate form of gene
Term
Genotype
Definition
Homozygous
Term
phenotype
Definition
Appearance
Term
Locus
Definition
Location of gene on a chromosome
Term
Allele interaction
Definition
recessive
Term
Baldness
Definition
Sex limited
Term
Trisomy
Definition
47

Ex: Trisomy X, two barr bodies
Term
Maleness
Definition
Y-Chromosome
Term
Skin color
Definition
Polygenic
Term
Polygenic
Definition
Many genes cause phenotype
Term
Codominance
Definition
Heterozygous has blended phenotype
Term
Evo-Devo
Definition
HOX(homeotic) genes also found in mice with new ones added. Shows how evolution works. (fruit fly to a mouse)

Master Control Genes
- Control placement of parts of embryo but not specifics of what part looks like.
Term
Example of Evo-Devo
Definition
Mouse eye gene+ fruitfly= Compound fruitfly eye
Term
Epigenetics
Definition
"Above Genetics"
Heritable change but not DNA base change
Not a mutation
Term
DNA methylation
Definition
CH3 (methyl) attached to specific regions of DNA to block transcription
-Pattern changes with aging and stress
Term
Histone Modification
Definition
Changes in histone tails
-Make chromosomes more or less compact
-Activate or reduce transcription
-patterns change with stress, drug addiciton
Term
MicroRNAs
Definition
Control ability of mRNA to be read
(block transcription-Good drug manufacture)

Plays role in cancer and inactivation chromosome
Term
Transcription factors
Definition
proteins that control transcription by binding to Promoter -Signal RNA polymerase to bind and transcribe mRNA
Term
Maternal genes
Definition
Put mRNA for Bicoid in egg
-Mother determines gradient
Term
Gradient of Bicoid
Definition
sets up axis (head and tail)
Term
Segmentation genes
Definition
Divides up embyro
Term
Hox (homeobox) genes
Definition
Master transcription factors that ativate genes in each segment
(colinear)

Activate genes is segment
Term
Position Effect
Definition
cell becomes a type by its position in the developing organism
Term
Determining position
Definition
Gradients of sinals/proteins/morphagens
Term
Maternal effect
Definition
material in egg from mothers genome sets stage for development
Term
Determination
Definition
fixing fate of cell
Term
Differentiation
Definition
developed twoard a specific cell type
Term
Stem Cells
Definition
capable of developing in many cell types
Term
Totipotent
Definition
Can become all cell types + Placenta
Term
Blastocyst
Definition
inner cell mass
Term
Pleuripotent
Definition
all embroyo types
Term
Multipotent
Definition
body stem cells only
Term
IPS
Definition
Induced Pleuipotent Stem cells

Can be made from adult cells with 4 genes added
Term
Higher Maternal age means....
Definition
Higher chance of trisomys
Term
Four Types of Macromolecules
Definition
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Fats
Term
Macromolecules
Definition
large molecules from smaller subunits
Term
Monomer
Definition
Single unit
Term
Polymer
Definition
Multiple units
Term
Dehydration Synthesis
Definition
Formation of macromolecules by the removal of water
(monomer to polymer)
Term
Hydrolysis
Definition
Breaking down with water
(polymer to monomer)
Term
Monosaccharides
Definition
monomer of sugars
5 or 6 carbons
Term
Ring or Linear structures
Definition
Different ways to show the structure
Term
Isomers
Definition
Two structures with an identical molecular formula but different structures an
Term
3 types of structural isomers
Definition
Structural Isomer
Stereoisomer
Enantiomers
Term
Structural Isomers
Definition
Different arragement of around same elements
Ex: Glucose, galactose, fructose
Term
Stereoisomer
Definition
Geometric Isomers
-Above or Below Ring
-Ex: a-B Glucose
Term
Enatiomers
Definition
Mirror Image
Term
Disaccharides
Definition
Carbohydrates composed of
TWO MONOSACCHARIDES
-Ex: Sucrose = glucose+frutose
Term
Polysaccharides
Definition
Long chains of sugars
Energy Storage
Strutural support: Cellulose, Chitin
Term
Higher Branching Carbohydrate
Definition
Polysaccharides
Term
Examples of Polysaccharides
Definition
Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose
Term
Chitin
Definition
Carbohydrate polymer that makes up exoskeletons of insects
Term
Cellulose
Definition
Carbohydrate polymer that makes up plant stems
Term
Cis molecule structure
Definition
H
|
C=C
|
H
Term
Trans molecule structure
Definition
H H
| |
C=C
Term
Carbon
Definition
Basis for all organic molecules
Term
Atributes of Living Things
Definition
Metabolism
Reproduction
Sense Environment and Respond
Develop\Grow
Term
Carbohydrates
Definition
Carbon + Water
Term
Two Types of carbohydrates
Definition
Pento- 5 Carbon C5H20

Hexo- 6 Carbon C6H20
Term
What Disaccharide can be made from starch?
Definition
High Frutose Corn Syrup
(HFCS)
Contain glucose and frutose monomers
Term
Does more branching make polysaccharides easier or harder to digest?
Definition
Easier to digest
Term
Complex Carbs
Definition
-Modified sugars (glucosamine)
- Used for structures (chitin)
Term
Lipids
Definition
Hydrophobic molecules
Term
3 classes of Lipids
Definition
Fats
Phospholipids
Steroids
Term
Monomer of Fats
Definition
Fatty Acids
Term
Monomer of Phospholipids
Definition
Fatty Acids
Term
Structure of Steriods/Cholesterol
Definition
Ring Structure
Term
Fatty Acids
Definition
Monomers of Fats and Phosopholipids
Long Hydrocarbon chains
- Made of mostly C and H
-Have C (carboxly end) and omega end
Term
Types of Chemical Bonds
Definition
Covalent (polar and non-polar)
Ionic
Hydrogen
Term
Polar Covalent bond
Definition
Electrons create a polarity across molecule
Term
Non-polar Covalent bond
Definition
bonds with equal charges
Term
Ionic bond
Definition
Cations (+) bond with Anions (-)
Term
Hydrogen bond
Definition
H atom in a molecule becomes attracted to a O or N atom in another polar molecule
Term
Hydrophillic
Definition
Water Loving
Attracted to Water
Term
Hydrophobic
Definition
Water Fearing
Repels away from H20
Term
Polar and Ions
Hydrophillic or Hydrophobic
Definition
Hydrophillic
Term
Non polar
Hydrophillic or Hydrophobic
Definition
Hydrophobic
Term
pH
Definition
gradient of acidic to basic of solutions
Term
What determines pH
Definition
The concentration of H+ ions to OH- ions
Term
H+ ions
Definition
Makes solution more acidic
Term
OH- ions
Definition
Makes solution more basic
Term
Saturated Fatty Acids
Definition
-No double H bonds
-All carbons are linked by single covalent bonds
-Tend to be solid at room temp
Term
Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Definition
-one or more double H bonds
-Tend to be a liquid at room temp
Term
Monosaturated
Definition
1 double H bonds
Term
Polysaturated
Definition
Many double H bonds
Term
Omega 3 fatty acids
Definition
3 carbons after double H bond in tails

Ex: c=c-c-c
Term
Omega 6 fatty acids
Definition
6 carbons after double H bond in tails

Ex: c=c-c-c-c-c-c
Term
More carbons in fatty acids makes melting point...
Definition
Higher melting point
Term
Saturated melting point
Definition
Higher melting point
Term
Unsaturated melting point
Definition
lower melting point
Term
Transfatty acids
Definition
Trans strucutre in fatty acid tail
H
|
C=C
|
H
Term
Omega-3 fatty acids found in fish
Definition
EPA (20 carbon)
DHA (22 carbon)
Needed for growth and repair
To make other fatty acids
Term
Triglycerides
Definition
Made from 3 fatty acids attached to glycerol (by dehydration synthesis)
-Ester Bond
Term
Are fatty acids a fat?
Definition
Fatty acids are NOT a fat
Term
Energy storage of Fats
Definition
1 gram of fat stores 2x as much energy as 1 gram of glycogen or starch
Term
How do we get monosaturatd fats
Definition
body can make them
Term
How do we get polysaturated fats
Definition
from food
Term
Phospholipds
Definition
Glycerol + 2 fatty acids + a phosphate group (Amphiphilic- part polar)
-Form lipid bilayers
Term
Steroids
Definition
Interconnected rings of carbons
Hydrophobic
Cholesterol
Hormones (estrogen, testoserone)
Not used as monomers
Term
Proteins
Definition
monomer: Amino Acid (20 types)
Term
Amino Acids
Definition
differ by group
-some hydrophobic
-acidic
-basic
-neutral
Term
Primary Structure (peptide)
Definition
list (sequence) of amino acids in peptide
Term
Secondary Structure (peptide)
Definition
Folding based on hydrogen bonds (non-R group)
-Helical, pleated sheet, random
Term
Tertiary Structure (peptide)
Definition
3-D folding based on R-groups
-Helical, globular
Term
Quaternary Structure (peptide)
Definition
2 or more peptides
non-covalent bonding
Term
Peptide
Definition
Polymer of amino acids
Term
Enzyme structure
Definition
Globular
Term
Structural Proteins structure
Definition
Helical
Term
Denaturation
Definition
Unfolding of peptide due to environmental conditions
Ex: egg on frying pan
Term
Nucleic Acids
Definition
Nucleotides
RNA or DNA
Term
Nucleotide
Definition
monomer of nucleic acids
responsible for energy storage, cell signalling, transmition of genetic info
-Base+ 5 carbon sugar+ phosphate
Term
RNA
Definition
Polymer of nucleic acids
Sugar is Ribose
Term
DNA
Definition
Polymer of nucleic acids
sugar is deoxyribose (no oxygen)
Term
Cell Theory
Definition
-All organisims are composed of living cells
-Cells are the smallest living things
-Cells arise from pre-existing cells
Term
All cells have...
Definition
Genetic Material
Cytosol
Plasma Membrane
Term
Prokaryote
Definition
No nucleus
Appendeges- Pili, Flagella
DNA in nucleoid region
No membrane bound organelles
Term
Eukaryote
Definition
Nucleus
DNA inside nucleus
Cytosol
Nucleus
Membrane bound organelles
Term
Free Ribosomes
Definition
in cytosol
can move around anywhere
Proteins are released in cytosol
Term
Membrane-Bound Ribosomes
Definition
rER bound
Synthesize proteins used by rER
Term
Ribosomes
Definition
Synthesize protein chains
Term
Genome
Definition
entirety of organism's heriditary info
DNA or RNA
Gene Sequence
Term
Proteome
Definition
Entire set of proteins expressed by a genome
Protein set
Term
Eukaryotic Organelles
Definition
-Nucleus
-Mitochondria
-Chloroplast (plant only)
Term
Peroxisomes/Microbodies
Definition
Converts Peroxide into water
uses enzyme Catalase
Term
Fluid Mosiac Model
Definition
Phospholipid bilayer
-Impermeable (Ions, polar molecules)
-Permeable (non-polar molecules)
Term
Integral Proteins
Definition
Protein that is permanently attached to the cell membrane
Term
Transmembrane
Definition
span all the way through the membrane
Term
Peripheral Membrane Protein
Definition
-Attached on surface, easy to remove
Term
Light Microscope
Definition
can see:
-Mitochondria
-Most bateria
-Most plant and animal cells
Term
Electron Microscope
Definition
Can see:
-viruses
-small bacteria
-ribosomes
-proteins
-lipids
Term
Why is cell membrane called fluid mosiac?
Definition
Mosiac because its a MIX of lipids and proteins

Fluid because bilayer is like a light oil. Proteins and lipids can move around plane but always come back to same position
Term
What does cholesterol do to the cell membrane
Definition
Stabilizes the membrane
Term
What happens if the membrane becomes too hot?
Definition
Too loose
Term
What happens if the membrane becomes too loose?
Definition
Too rigid
Term
Glycoproteins
Definition
chain of sugars attached to a protein
Term
Glycolipids
Definition
Markers (recognition site)

One or more sugars attached to the Polar end of the lipid
Term
Glycosylation
Definition
adding sugars
Term
Passive Diffusion
Definition
-small non-charged, NON POLAR gases, ethanol

Requires no energy (ATP)
Term
Facilitated diffusion
Definition
-Facilitated (needs integral protein)
- High to Low concentration
Term
Osmosis
Definition
Diffusion of water across membrane
Term
Isotonic
Definition
Equal water and soulute concentration on either side of membrane
Term
Hypertonic
Definition
Solute concentration is higher
Water concentration is lower
Cell shrinks

Water goes out of cell to dilute the solute
Term
Hypotonic
Definition
Solute concentration is lower
Water concentration is higher

Cell gets larger, water comes in to dillute solute
Term
What moves in osmosis
Definition
Water
Term
Active Transport
Definition
Movement of a substance AGAINST its concentration gradient

Requires ATP or other energy

Pump (low to high)
Term
Gradient (transport)
Definition
Distribution of solute from high to low concentration
Term
Two types of Gradients (transport)
Definition
Transmembrane Gradient
Ionic electrochemical gradient
Term
Transmembrane Gradient
Definition
Concentration of a solute is higher on one side of the membrane than the other
Term
Ionic Electrochemical gradient
Definition
Both an electrical gradient (charge) and chemical gradient
Term
Na+/K- pump
Definition
Help maintain resting potential

Regulates cellular volume

Action potential for neurons
Term
Vesicle Transport
Definition
Endocytosis
Phagocytosis
Pinnocytosis
Term
Endocytosis
Definition
Vesicle pinches off of plasma membrane and into cell
Term
Phagocytosis
Definition
Large
Term
Pinnocytosis
Definition
Small
Term
Receptor Mediated
Definition
Material to be imported attaches to binding protein that concentrates it.

Specific molecules only
Term
Exocytosis
Definition
Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane

Vesicle content going OUTSIDE
Term
Golgi Body
Definition
Post Office
Sorts proteins into vesicles
Protein Modifacation

Enzymes in golgi mark proteins
Cis, Trans, Cisternae
Term
Cis (golgi)
Definition
Closest to ER
Term
Trans (golgi)
Definition
Farthest from ER
Term
Smooth ER
Definition
Site for steriods detox and Calcium storage
Term
Rough ER
Definition
protein synthesis
ribosomes
Term
Lysosome
Definition
Digestion in cell
Come from Golgi
Term
Cell Transport Process
Definition
Protein synthesis on free ribosomes
Ribosomes bind to rER--> signal peptide
Completed protein is inside rER, go to golgi
visicles break off of golgi, become cis face lysosomes or for exocytosis
Exocytosis replaces plasma membrane
Term
Delta G
Definition
Amount of energy change in a RXN
Amount of energy for work (free energy)
Term
Spontaneous(exergonic)
Definition
Favorable
Delta G is negative (extra energy)
Term
Not Spontaneous (endergonic)
Definition
Not Favorable
Delta G is positive
(needs extra energy)
Term
Coupled Reactions
Definition
Overall Change is negative
Endergonic + Exergonic =exergonic
Make reactions easier for cell
Term
Oxidation
Definition
LEO
Loss of Electrons
Reductant--> Product + electron
Electron lost
Term
Reduction
Definition
GEO
Gain of Electrons
Oxidant + Electron = Product
Electron gained
Term
Enzymes
Definition
Proteins that catalyze (increase rates of) reactions
Bind substrates
Term
Active Site
Definition
Primary space that binds substrates
Term
Cofactors
Definition
Non protein molecules

Required to bind to enzymes to make them active

Usually temporary
Term
Read about Cellular Respiration
Definition
Term
Glycolysis
Definition
Glucose (6C) to 2 pyruvate(3c)

Net 2 ATP
2 NADH
2 pyruvate
Term
Pyruvate Breakdown
Definition
Acetyl CoA (2C)
CO2
Term
Krebs
Definition
3 NADH
1 ATP
1 FADH
Term
Where does glycolysis happen
Definition
Cytosol
Term
Where does pyruvate breakdown occur
Definition
Matrix
Term
Oxydative Phosphorylation
Definition
Aerobic
oxidation of NADH, makes ATP
Reduction of oxygen
Phosphorylation occurs by ATP synthase
Term
Phosphylation
Definition
Addition of phosphate
Term
Overview of Cell Respiration
Definition
C6H12+6O2 to 6CO2+6H20

Coupled to e- stored in 10 NADH and 2FADH2

Coupled to phosphylation of 2 ATP and 2 GTP

No oxygen required in Kreb cycle

Oxygen required in everything else
Term
2 ways to make ATP
Definition
Substrate-level phosphorylation

Energy stored in electrochemical gradient
Term
Substrate level phosphorylation
Definition
Enzyme directly transfers phosphate
Term
Electrochemical Gradient
Definition
energy stored in it makes ATP from ADP and P
Term
Mitochondria
Definition
Outer membrane
Inner membrane
Matrix
Cristae
Inner membrane space

Double Membrane

Comes from Mother
Term
Semi Autonomous
Definition
Has own DNA
Needs genes
Term
Mitochondrial Damage
Definition
Oxygen Free Radicals
-Parkinsons
-Cardiac Damage
-Diabetes
Term
Electron Transport
Definition
in inner membrane of mitochondria

Protons increase in inner & outer membrane
Term
Chloroplasts
Definition
Double Membrane
-Outer and Inner

Thaylakoid
-has chrlorphyll
-3rd membrane
Term
Stroma
Definition
Fluid part

Has DNA, ribosome

Semi-Automous
Term
Photosynthesis takes place in
Definition
Chloroplasts
Term
PSII
Definition
Photosystem II
Oxygen from water
Electron trans + H gradient makes ATP
Term
PSI
Definition
Photosystem I
Electrons for NADPH
Term
Photopigments
Definition
Chlorophyll
Term
Thylakoid Membrane
Definition
Flow of Electrons and photons
(light reaction)
Term
Calvin Cycle
Definition
CO2 fixation

2 (3C)use ATP+ NADPH in Stroma to put CO2 into organic molcules
Term
Calvin Cycle equation
Definition
carbon dioxcide plus water reacts to light to make glucose and oxygen
Term
Calvin Cycle
ATP is Added
NADPH is Added
What is released
Definition
ADP is released
NADP is released
Term
Cell Communication
Definition
Sending and receiving molecules
Term
Parcine
Definition
Neighboring
Term
Endocrine
Definition
Blood stream
Term
Direct Contact
Definition
Junctions
Term
Receptor
Definition
unique 3D space to bind to Ligand
No catalytic activity, just releases ligand
Term
Membrane receptors
Definition
Transmembrane proteins
Change shape when Ligand binds
Term
Activated receptors
Definition
Opens channel
add Phosphate to proteins
activate G proteins
Term
How are cellular actions in Eukaryotes controlled
Definition
By outside hormones
Term
Signal transduction
Definition
Activated receptor sets off transduction pathway

protein kinases

G proteins

Second messengers
Term
Protein Kinases
Definition
Add phosphate to other proteins
activate other proteins

Amplifies signal
Term
Activation of transcription factor
Definition
Turns on specific genes
Term
G coupled receptors
Definition
cause GTP to bind to G proteins

Start amplifacation
Term
Second messengers
Definition
small molecules
activate various reactions in the cell
amplify signal of receptor binding
Term
Neutral mutations
Definition
doesnt affect protein
Term
Missense mutation
Definition
Changed up sequence
Term
Nonsense mutation
Definition
Cuts the sequence short
Term
Frameshift mutation
Definition
additions or deletions to sequence
Term
Germ Cells
Definition
reproductive cells
eggs and sperm
Term
Spontaneous mutations
Definition
Biologial change
Term
Induced mutations
Definition
Environment agents
Term
Gene Regulation
Definition
Controls what genes are replicated
Term
3 components of nucleotides
Definition
Phosphate
Sugar
Ribose
Deoxyribose
Nitrogenous bases
Term
Pyrines
Definition
Adenine
Guanine
Term
Pyrimidines
Definition
Cytosine
Thymine or Uracil
Term
DNA is ______ stranded
Definition
double-stranded
Term
RNA is ______ stranded
Definition
single-stranded
Term
Complementary bases
Definition
A binds T, G binds C in DNA (AT, GC)
A binds U, G binds C in RNA (AU, GC)
Term
3 components of nucleotides
Definition
Phosphate
Sugar
Nitrogenous bases
Term
Pyrines
Definition
Adenine
Guanine
Term
Pyrimidines
Definition
Cytosine
Thymine or Uracil
Term
DNA is _______ stranded
Definition
double stranded
Term
RNA is ______ stranded
Definition
single stranded
Term
Antiparallel structure of DNA
Definition
one strand 5' to 3'
other 3' to 5'
Term
Chromatin
Definition
single double stranded DNA+Protein
Term
Nucleosome
Definition
150 bp of DNA
Wraps around 4 histone molecules
7x compact
Term
30 nm fiber
Definition
Linker regions
Between nucleosome looped together
Term
Chromosomes bind to
Definition
proteins inside nucleus
Term
Replication
Definition
Duplicating DNA
Term
Semiconservative
Definition
one old, one new
Term
Enzymes
Definition
Helicase
DNA polymerase
Term
Helicase
Definition
unwinds DNA
Term
DNA polymerase
Definition
Replication
Term
Orgins of replication
Definition
Where DNA begins to unwind
Open up forks
Term
Primer
Definition
Small piece of single stranded DNA or RNA

Needed to start replication
Term
New strand is made _' to _'
Definition
5' to 3'
Term
Template strand is _' to _'
Definition
3' to 5'
Term
Okazaki fragments
Definition
Fragments of replicated DNA from lagging strand in fork
Term
Telemers
Definition
End of Eukaryotic chromosomes
Get shorter each division (age)
Term
Nucleus
Definition
2 membranes
Inner
Outer
Term
Pore complex
Definition
connects inner and outer nuclear membrane

Controls materials going in and out
Term
Nuclear lamina
Definition
Protein coating inside of inner membrane

Chromosomes attach to it
Term
Transcription
Definition
mRNA
tRNA
rRNA
Term
RNA polymerase
Definition
binds to promoter before transcription
Term
Pre-mRNA processed/spliced when?
Definition
before leaving nucleus
Term
Introns
Definition
Junk
Term
Exons
Definition
Good
Term
mRNA gets what 2 things?
Definition
5' cap
Poly A tail (AAAAA)
Term
tRNA
Definition
transport
carries amino acids

in cytoplasm

Correct amino acid at the top
Term
rRNA
Definition
ribosomal
part of ribosomes
Term
mRNA
Definition
messenger
carries code for genes
Term
Prokaryotic mRNA
Definition
ready to be translated
Term
Eukaryotic mRNA
Definition
needs pre-mRNA to splice it into smaller functional mRNA
Get it out of nucleus
Term
What decodes the mRNA
Definition
ribosomes

makes a peptide
Term
Codon is bases in _____.
Definition
mRNA
Term
Anticodon is bases in ______.
Definition
tRNA
Term
Codons and Anticodons have how many bases in a row?
Definition
3 bases
Term
Degenerate Codon
Definition
more than one codon each amino acid
Term
Universal Codon
Definition
same in pro and euk
Term
Wobble Codon
Definition
First two bases are more important than 3rd
Term
Reading Frame
Definition
Only start and stop signals
Have to start at correct place to make correct peptide
Term
Initiation
Definition
Small subunit binds to mRNA
AUG codon
First tRNA anticodon

Large subunit binds to 3 sites
P site
A site
E site
Term
P site
Definition
Peptide
Term
A site
Definition
Amino Acid
Term
E site
Definition
Exit
Term
Elongation
Definition
New activated amino actyl tRNA
Enters A site
Binds codon/anticodon
Term
What causes elongation
Definition
rRNA of large subunit
Term
Translation occurs
Definition
one condon, peptide, back in P site
Term
Termination
Definition
elongation continues until stop codon
Term
Prokaryotes gene regulation
Definition
Operon model
Term
How many promoters in operon model
Definition
One promoter
Term
How many genes does a promoter control?
Definition
Multiple
Term
Repressor I proteins bind to ______ region to _______
Definition
O region

Stop transcription
Term
Eukaryotes gene regulation
Definition
Each cell has same genome
only some genes transcribed
Term
Transcription factors
Definition
proteins that activate transcription
Term
Promoter region
Definition
turns on genes for transcription
controls multiple genes
Term
Alterations in histones can.....
Definition
turn off genes
Term
microRNA
Definition
smalls RNAs that block translation
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