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Test 2 Ch 4, 5, 10, 11
jfdoiwe
156
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
02/26/2012

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Term
Perception
Definition
Processes that organize info in the sensory image and interpret it as having been produced by properties of objects or events in the external, three-dimensional world
Term
Three Stage Process of Perception
Definition
Sensation
Perceptual Organization
Identification &
Recognition
Term
Sensation
Definition
- Process by which stimulation of sensory receptor gives rise to neural impulses that result in an experience, or awareness of, conditions inside or outside the body
Term
Perceptual Organization
Definition
Processes that put sensory information together to give the perception of a coherent scene over the whole visual field
Term
Distal Stimulus
Definition
Actual Objects and Events
Term
Proximal Stimulus
Definition
Our actual skewed perception of the objects and events we observe
Term
Ambiguity
Definition
more than one interpretation of something that can be perceived
Term
Illusions
Definition
Occur when your perceptual system deceives you into experiencing a stimulus pattern in a way that is incorrect
Term
Psychophysics
Definition
The study of the correspondence between physical stimulation and psychological experience
Term
threshold
Definition
The quantity of a stimulus that is necessary for a person to sense it is present
Term
Absolute threshold
Definition
The minimum amount of physical energy needed to produce a reliable sensory experience (50% of the time)
Term
Psychometric function
Definition
graph that shows the percentage of detections at each stimulus intensity
Term
Sensory Adaption
Definition
(Psychophysics) Receptor cells lose power to respond after period of unchanged stimulation
Term
Signal Detection Theory (SDT)
Definition
Allows an experimenter to identify and separate the roles of sensory stimuli and the individual’s criterion level in producing the final response
Term
Difference Threshold
Definition
Smallest physical difference between two stimuli that can still be recognized as a difference
Term
Just Noticeable Difference (JND)
Definition
Smallest difference between two sensations
Term
Weber's Law
Definition
Size of a difference threshold is proportional to the intensity of the standard stimulus
Term
Transduction
Definition
Transformation of one form of energy into another
Light -----------------> Neural Impulses
Term
The Visual System
Pupil and Lens::
Accomodation
Definition
Process by which ciliary muscles change the thickness of the lens of the eye
Term
Nearsightedness
Definition
Range of accommodation shifted closer
Term
Farsightedness
Definition
Range of accommodation is shifted further away
Term
Photoreceptors
Definition
Rods and Cones

Rods - dim illumination
Cones - color vision
Term
Fovea
Definition
A small region of densely packed cones at the center of the retina
Area of sharpest vision
Term
Retinal Pathways:
Bipolar Cells
Definition
Nerve cells that combine impulses from many receptors to send to ganglion cells
Term
Retinal Pathways:
Ganglion cells
Definition
Integrates the impulses from one or more bipolar cell into a single firing rate
Term
Retinal Pathways:
Horizontal Cells
Definition
Connect receptors to one another
Term
Retinal Pathways:
Amacrine cells
Definition
Link bipolar cells to other bipolar cells and ganglion cells to other ganglion cells
Term
Processes in the Brain:
Visual Cortex
Definition
Portion of the occipital lobe that processes visual information
Term
Optic Nerve
Definition
Axons of the ganglion cells from the optic nerve
Term
Seeing Color:
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Definition
Your visual system can only sense a small range of wavelengths in the physical dimension called the electromagnetic spectrum
Term
Seeing Color:
Wavelength
Definition
Physical property that distinguishes types of electromagnetic energy, including light
Term
Seeing Color:
Hue
Definition
The qualitative experience of the color of the light
Corresponds to the physical dimension of the light’s wavelengths
Term
Seeing Color:
Saturation
Definition
The psychological dimension that captures the purity and vividness of color
Term
Seeing Color:
Brightness
Definition
Refers to the intensity of light
Term
Seeing Color:
Complementary Colors
Definition
Wavelengths that appear directly across from each other on the color circle
Term
Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory
Definition
There are three types of color receptors: red, green, and blue


(Theories of Color Vision)
All other colors are additive or subtractive combinations of these three
Term
Opponent-Process Theory
Definition
(Theories of Color Vision)

Proposes all color experiences arise from 3 systems, each of which includes 2 opponent elements
Term
Physical Dimensions of Sound:
Frequency
Definition
Measures the number of cycles the wave completes in a given time
Sound frequency is measured in hertz
Term
Physical Dimensions of Sound:
Amplitude
Definition
Measures the physical property of the strength of the sound wave
Term
Psychological Dimensions of Sound:
Pitch
Definition
Highness or lowness of sound
Measured in Hertz (Hz)
Term
Psychological Dimensions of Sound:
Loudness
Definition
Amplitude of a sound wave
Physical intensity
Measured in decibels (dB)
Term
Psychological Dimensions of Sound:
Timbre
Definition
Complexity of a sound wave
Term
Theories of Pitch Perception:
Place Theory
Definition
Initially proposed by Hermann von Helmholtz
Different frequency tones produce activation at different locations along the basilar membrane
Term
Theories of Pitch Perception:
Frequency Theory
Definition
A tone produces a rate of vibration in the basilar membrane equal to its
frequency
A tone produces a rate of vibration in the basilar membrane equal to its frequency

Volley principle
Term
Sound Localization
Definition
The brain uses differences in the time at which sounds arrive at the two ears to locate sounds in space.
Term
Olfactory is
Definition
Smell
Term
Gustatory is
Definition
Taste
Term
Pain:
Gate-Control Theory
Definition
Suggests that cells in the spinal cord act as neurological gates, interrupting and blocking some pain signals and allowing others to get through to the brain
Term
Pain:
Neuromatrix Theory
Definition
Incorporates the reality that people experience pain without physical cause
Term
Attentional Processes:
Attention
Definition
State of focused awareness on a subset of the available perceptual information
Term
Selective Attention:
Goal-directed selection
Definition
Reflects the choices you will make as a function of your own goals
Term
Selective Attention:
Stimulus-driven capture
Definition
Reflects the choices you will make as a function of the features of the stimuli in the environment
Term
Fate of Unattended Information:
Dichotic Listening
Definition
Procedure in which a subject hears two different taped messages at the same time
Term
Fate of Unattended information:
Shadowing
Definition
The subject is instructed to repeat only one of two messages while ignoring the other message
Term
Cocktail Party Effect
Definition
look it up?
Term
Principles of Perceptual Grouping:
Figure
Definition
Object-like regions of the visual field that are distinguished from background
Term
Principles of Perceptual Grouping:
Ground
Definition
Backdrop or background areas of the visual field, against which figures stand out
Term
Gestalt Psychology
Definition
school of psych: only look at whole. cannot be understood if taken apart
Term
Principles of Perceptual Grouping? (5)
Definition
Law of Proximity
Law of Similarity
Law of Good Continuation
Law of Closure
Law of Common Fate
Term
Motion Perception:
The Phi Phenomenon
Definition
A movement illusion in which one or more stationary lights going on and off in succession are perceived as a single light
Term
Perceptual Constancies:
Size and Shape Constancy
Definition
The ability to perceive the true size of an object despite variations in the size or shape of the retinal image

The Ames Room
Term
Perceptual Constancies:
Lightness Constancy
Definition
Tendency to perceive the whiteness, grayness or blackness of objects as constant across levels of illumination
Term
Identification and Recognition Processes:
Bottom-up Processing
Definition
Perceptual analyses based on sensory data
Term
Identification and Recognition Processes:
Top-down Processing
Definition
Individual factors influence the way a perceived object is interpreted and classified
Term
Consciousness
Definition
Awareness of internal events and of the external environment
Term
Self-awareness
Definition
Top level of consciousness
Term
Nonconscious
Definition
Body activities that never impinge on consciousness
(breathing, heart beating)
Term
Preconscious
Definition
Can be called into consciousness when necessary
Unattended Information

memories that function silently in the background of your mind until a situation arises that calls attention to them. Examples: general knowledge of language, sports, geography, recollections of your personally experienced events
Term
Unconsciousness:
Memories
Definition
Memories are stored in the unconscious with the capability of returning to consciousness if the anxiety associated with them is eliminated
Term
Functions of Consciousness
Definition
Why do we need consciousness: it provides a range of functions that aid in the survival of the species and plays an important role in allowing for the construction of personal and culturally shared realities

Restrictive function – allows you to tune out things you don’t need to pay attention to

Selective storage – allows you to selectively story info you want to analyze, interpret, and act on and ignore others

Executive control – Planning – enables you to suppress strong desires when they conflict with moral, ethical, practical concerns – COMPARABLE TO THE ID
Term
Freud:
Repression-Defense Mechanism
Definition
keeps ideas/wishes in the unconscious
Term
Freud:
Denial
Definition
refusal to admit or recognize that something has occurred or is currently occurring on the level of consciousness
Term
Freud:
Believed what about individuals in accordance to human minds?
Definition
all individuals could recall everything in the human mind
Term
Personal Construction of Reality
Definition
Your unique interpretation of a current situation
Term
Cultural Construction of Reality
Definition
Ways of thinking about the world that are shared by most members of a particular group
Term
Freudian Dream Analysis (3)
Definition
Freud – Dreams are symbolic expressions of powerful unconscious, repressed wishes and harbor forbidden desires
Two dynamic forces (like id, ego, superego) – operating in dreams are the wish and the censorship (defense against the wish)

Latent content – hidden meaning – socially unacceptable version
Manifest content – what appears after the distortion process – acceptable story to the dreamer
Dream Work – distortion process

Nightmares – fairly infrequent, more common after trauma and in children
Term
Lucid Dreaming
Definition
taking control of your dreams while you are still asleep


Opponents say it distorts the natural process of dreaming while others say it can increase self esteem
Term
Hypnosis
Definition
Hypnotizability – the degree to which and individual is responsive to a standardized suggestions to experience hypnotic reactions

Altered state of awareness; trance-like
Term
Mind-Altering Drugs:
Psychoactive Drugs
Definition
Chemicals that change conscious awareness of reality
Term
Mind-Altering Drugs:
Tolerance
Definition
Continued use requires greater dosage
Term
Mind-Altering Drugs:
Physiological Dependence
Definition
Body becomes adjusted to and dependent on a drug
Tolerance + dependence = addiction
Term
Mind-Altering Drugs:
Addiction
Definition
Body requires drug in order to function without a reaction
Individual suffers painful withdrawal symptoms if the drug is not present
Term
6 Categories of psychoactive Drugs
Definition
Narcotics (opiates)
Sedatives
Stimulants
Hallucinogens
Cannabis
Alcohol
MDMA (ecstasy)
Term
Biological Rhythms and Sleep:
Circadian Rhythms
Definition
24 hr biological cycles
Regulation of sleep/other body functions
Term
Circadian Rhythms slide
Definition
Humans and other animals operate on a 24-hour biological cycle. These daily cycles are particularly important in the regulation of sleep, but also in the regulation of temperature, blood production, hormone production, and other bodily processes.
Circadian rhythms vary from person to person, and different people may have different optimal times to fall asleep, have a good night’s sleep, etc.
The pathway for regulation of the human biological clock appears to be based in light levels, which go from the eye to an area of the brain called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (in the hypothalamus). This nucleus tells the pineal gland to secrete melatonin, a hormone that adjusts biological clocks.
Melatonin supplements are sold in the U.S. as nutritional supplements, but many researchers worry that people are taking too high doses of this substance, when long-term effects have not been tested. Melatonin is a regulated drug in Canada, Great Britain, and many other countries. Research shows that may be helpful in the treatment of jet lag, but timing is very important and hard to get right. Studies also show that melatonin may be useful as a mild sedative, more so in the daytime than at night, when melatonin levels are naturally higher.

Changes that cause a mismatch between your biological clock and environmental clocks affect how much you feel and act – jet lag

Eastbound creates greater jetlag because you biological clock can be more readily extended than shortened-its easier to stay awake longer than it is to fall asleep sooner

Jet Lag
Fatigue, irresistible sleepiness, and unusual sleep-wake cycles that result when the internal circadian rhythm is out of phase with the temporal environment
Term
Sleep Stages: Cycling Through Sleep (5)
Definition
Stage 1: brief, transitional (1-7 minutes)
alpha -> theta
hypnic jerks
Stage 2: sleep spindles (10-25 minutes)
Stages 3 & 4 : slow-wave sleep (30 minutes)
Stage 5: REM, EEG similar to awake, vivid dreaming (initially a few minutes, progressively longer as cycle through the stages)
Developmental differences in REM sleep
Term
Why do we sleep?
Definition
Sleep evolved because it allowed animals to conserve energy
Restoration
Sleep occurs to provide an opportunity to repair and restore brain cells
Term
Insomnia
Definition
chronic failure to get adequate sleep, inability to fall asleep quickly, frequent arousal during sleep, early morning awaking
Term
Hypersomnia
Definition
prolonged sleep or daytime sleep episodes almost daily for at least a month
Term
Narcolepsy
Definition
– irresistible attacks of refreshing sleep that occur daily over 3 months; involves cataplexy – sudden bilateral loss of muscle tone and recurrent intrusions of REM
Term
Breathing Related
Definition
like obstructive or central sleep apnea syndrome or other syndromes that disrupt your sleep
Term
Sleep Apnea
Definition
Stop breathing while asleep
Term
Parasomnias:
Nightmare Disorder
Definition
Repeated awakening with detailed recall of extremely frightening dreams
Term
Parasomnias:
Sleep Terror Disorder
Definition
Abrupt awakening with a panicky scream
Term
Parasomnias:
Sleepwalking Disorder (Somnambulism)
Definition
Rising from bed and walking about
Term
Prenatal period
Definition
conception to birth
Term
infancy
Definition
first 18 months
Term
preschool period
Definition
(or toddlers) 2-5/6 years
Term
middle childhood
Definition
6-11 years (or until puberty)
Term
adolescence
Definition
11-20
Term
early adulthood
Definition
20-40 years
Term
middle adulthood
Definition
40-65 years
Term
late adulthood
Definition
65 years and older
Term
Teratogens (structural abonormalities
Definition
smoking: also second-hand smoke
-more likely low birth weight
cocaine: goes through the placenta and can affect baby directly---what happens when you take cocaine? blood vessels constrict and so in pregnant women, placental blood flow is restricted…decreases oxygen supply, can eventually cause blood vessels in brain to burst—lifelong mental handicaps
-attention problems
Term
FAS
Definition
what
Term
Reflexes
Definition
unlearned involuntary resposnes
Term
2 types of reflexes
Definition
Survival, Primitive
Term
Hearing Development
Definition
can hear before birth
Term
Robert Fantz
Definition
babies prefer looking at objects with contours as well as whole faces; top heavy patterns
Term
Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk
Definition
visual cliff
Term
visual cliff
Definition
how children respond to depth information
Term
limbic system
Definition
regulates emotional responses
Term
frontal lobes
Definition
planning and control of emotions
Term
sensorimotor stage
Definition
0-2 years old Piaget
Term
preoperational stage
Definition
2-7 years old Piaget
Term
concrete operational stage
Definition
7-11 years old piaget
Term
formal operational stage
Definition
11 and up Piaget
Term
Object Permanence
Definition
developed in sensorimotor stage
Term
egocentrisim
Definition
characteristic of preoperational stage
Term
centration
Definition
only centering attention on one aspect of a situation. Occurs in preoperational stage
Term
conservation
Definition
certain properties of objects do not change when nothing is added/taken away, just because appearance changes. CHARACTERISTIC OF PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
Term
characteristics of concrete operational stage
Definition
able = understanding of conservation. logical reasoning. less egocentrism
Term
characteristics of formal operational stage
Definition
abstract reasoning
hypothetical thinking
deeper questions
Term
phonology
Definition
study of sounds put together to make words
Term
syntax
Definition
how words are put together in sentences to make meaning
Term
morpheme
Definition
minimum unit of grammar that cannot be divided without losing meaning
Term
semantics
Definition
study of meanings of words
Term
lexical meaning
Definition
dictionary meaning
Term
pragmatics
Definition
rules for participation in conversations, social conventions of language
Term
phoneme
Definition
smallest unit of speech
Term
phonetics
Definition
study and classification of speech sounds
Term
Janet Werker
Definition
can infants hear the difference between hini phonemes? can infants hear the difference between Hindi phonemes? conditioned infants to turn head toward a sound when they heard a change
-box contains a clapping and drumming animal; if they deterct changes they will likely turn their heads

all children could hear differences until age 8 months; only Hindi infants could hear it after this
Term
After 18 months
Definition
learning takes off - the "naming explosion"
Term
fast mapping
Definition
can learn the meanings of new words with minimal experience, maybe only a single exposure
Term
Noam Chomsky
Definition
children are born with mental structures that facilitate comprehension and construction of language
Term
Dan Slobin
Definition
1985. Slobin—there are certain rules, or operating principles that children use that make up their language making capacity (what they bring)
Term
two word stage
Definition
start to use combos of words; also called telegraphic
Term
Erikson's Psychosocial Stages
Definition
trust vs. mistrust
autonomy vs. self-doubt
initiative vs. guilt
competence vs. inferiority
identify vs. role confusion
intimacy vs. isolation
generativity vs. stagnation
*incorporate both sexual and social aspects of development
*focus is on interaction between self and the social environment
Term
Trust vs. Mistrust
Definition
0-1.5 years

needs to develop a basic sense of trust in the environment.

if not enough caregiver interaction: develop mistrust, insecurity, anxiety

Can I trust others?

strength/virtue: hope
Term
Autonomy vs. Self Doubt
Definition
1.5- 3 years

child starts: use objects, walk, talk

should develop a sense of independence and capability
excessive criticism/restriction, or demanding too much, can lead to self-doubts and discourage perseverance
Can I act on my own?
strength/virtue: will
Term
Initiative vs. Guilt
Definition
3-6 years old.

child has now developed a sense of trust in the environment and in him/herself
initiation of motor activity and intellectual activity
Continue to encourage freedom and build confidence
inadequate resolution? Feelings of low self-worth
Can I carry out my plans successfully?
Strenth/virtue: purpose
Term
Competence vs. inferiority (6-puberty)
Definition
school and sports offer opportunities
motor skills, intellectual skills, social skills
success = competence
experiencing failure repeatedly can lead to lack of self confidence

Am I competent compared with others?
Strength/virtue: competence
Term
identity vs. role confusion
Definition
Adolescence.


discovering true identity amid confusion of many different roles
resolution: to develop a coherent sense of self
inadequate resolution: sense of shifting, fragmented self

Who am I?
Strength/virtue: fidelity (to roles/sense of self)
Term
intimacy vs. isolation
Definition
Young Adult.develop capacity to make full emotional, moral, and sexual commitments to others
requires compromising of personal preferences, accepting responsibilities
inadequate resolution: isolation and inability to connect to others meaningfully; feelings of aloneness/separation

Am I ready for a relationship?
Strength/virtue: love
Term
generativity vs. stagnation
Definition
(middle adult)


move beyond self and partner to family, work, society, future
unresolved past conflicts may be self-indulgent, regretful, pursuant of freedom at expense of security

Have I left my mark?
strength/virtue: care
Term
ego integrity vs. despair
Definition
later adult.


resolved earlier crises allow adults to look back at earlier stages without regrets and a sense of “wholeness”
unresolved: feelings of futility and disappointment

Has my life been meaningful?
strength/virtue: wisdom
Term
socialization
Definition
patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes, motives, etc. are shaped to conform to society
Term
Attachment
Definition
establishment of a close emotional, enduring relationship (in childhood, with a caregiver)
earliest function is survival
Term
John Bowlby
Definition
1973. infants and adults made to develop attachments


these relationships provide a lifelong schema for other social relationships (called the internal working model)
Term
imprinting
Definition
Konrad Lorenz. physically following and forming an attachment to the first moving object infants see or hear
occurs rapidly
not easily modified
can be problematic
Term
Mary Ainsworth
Definition
Strange Situation Test (1978)

securely attached
insecurely attached-avoidant
insecurely attached-ambivalent/resistant
Term
securely attached
Definition
show some distress when parent leaves the room, seek comfort upon return, then start playing again
Term
insecurely attached-avoidant
Definition
: aloof and actively avoid upon mother’s return
Term
insecurely attached-ambivalent/resistant
Definition
become upset when parent leaves, cannot be comforted at reunion, and show both anger and resistance and desire for contact
Term
Harry Harlow
Definition
Harlow's Monkeys



Harlow didn’t think it was cupbaord, he thought it was that infants also attach to those who provide contact comfort, or physical contact that provides comfort.

wire monkey mom vs. furry monkey mom.

ones with wire monkey mom misbehaved more.
Term
cupboard theory
Definition
view of Freud and others that attachment occurs because mothers provide food (basic need)
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