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social psychology
social psychology final
220
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
02/24/2012

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Term
Social Psychology
Definition
A scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behavior and thought in Social Situations
Term
Evolutionary psychology
Definition
A new branch of psychology that seeks to investigate the potential role of genetic factors in various aspects of human behavior.
Term
Experimentation
Definition
Most commonly used method , drawing conclusions from controlled experiments.
Term
schemas
Definition
mental frameworks centering around a specific theme that help organize social information.
Term
perseverance effect
Definition
tendency for beliefs and schemas to remain unchanged even when presented with contradictory information
Term
self-fulfilling prophecy
Definition
predictions that make themselves come true about one’s self
Term
Standford prison experiment
Definition
Once the randomly selected students were appointed to the to the roles of guard or prisoner in such a period of time of a day they immediately took on the role and turned into completely different people and the stimulation experiment quickly turned unethical. Very traumatizing for the guards and the students, Guards did not know they were capable of such actions and the prisoners felt completely stripped of basic human rights.
Term
Representativeness
Definition
Making judgments based on the extent to which current stimuli or events resemble other stimuli or categories.
Term
availability
Definition
Making judgments on the basis of how easily specific kinds of information can be brought to mind.
Term
Anchoring and Adjustment
Definition
The tendency to make judgments using a number or value as a starting point to which adjustments then are made
Term
automatic processing
Definition
After extensive experience information processing becomes effortless, involuntary, unintentional, and not conscious , I.E.- driving and not knowing/remembering the drive or how you ended up how there
Term
negativity bias
Definition
People pay greater attention to negative information than to positive information.
Term
optimistic bias
Definition
Predisposition to expect things to turn out well, overall
People believe that they are more likely than others to experience good outcomes and less likely to experience bad outcomes.
Term
overconfidence barrier
Definition
Tendency to have more confidence in the accuracy of judgments than is reasonable.
Term
planning fallacy
Definition
Tendency to make optimistic predictions about how long it will take to complete a task
Term
thought suppression
Definition
efforts to prevent certain thoughts from entering consciousness
Term
monitoring
Definition
Automatic search for unwanted thoughts
Term
operating
Definition
controlled, conscious attempt to distract oneslf by thinking about something else.
Term
rebound effect
Definition
occurs when someone is fatigued or experiencing information overload; result is only monitoring process is working.
Term
magical thinking
Definition
thinking based on irrational assumptions
Term
Mood- dependent Memory
Definition
information remembered while in a given mood may be determined by what was learned when previously in that mood.
Term
Mood congruence effects
Definition
people are more likely to store or remember positive information when in a positive mood and negative information when in a negative mood.
Term
Two factor theory of Emotion
Definition
the perception of situations can determine emotional reactions
Thoughts can regulate emotions.
“ I never had a chance” effect- convincing oneself that “ I never had a chance” helps regulate mood by reducing disappointment.
Term
nonverbal communication
Definition
Communication between individuals that relies on an unspoken language of facial expressions, eye contact, and body language
Term
micro expression
Definition
fleeting facial expressions lasting only a few tenths of a second
Term
attribution
Definition
process through which people seek to identify the causes of others’ behavior and so gain knowledge of their stable traits and dispositions
Term
Jones and Davis’ Correspondent Inference Theory
Definition
describes how people use others’ behavior as a basis for inferring their stable dispositions
What factors are considered important in this process?
Behavior is freely chosen
Behavior yields non-common effects- effects produced by a particular cause that could not be produced by any other apparent cause.
Term
Kelley’s theory of Causal Attributions
Definition
People attribute the cause of others’ behavior to internal or external factors.
Internal- Personal Traits
External- Caused by situation
Term
consensus
Definition
extent others behave in same way toward the stimulus
Term
consistency
Definition
extent person always behaves this way toward the stimulus
Term
distinctiveness
Definition
extent person responds in the same way toward different stimuli
Term
discounting principle
Definition
tendency to attach less importance to one potential cause of some behavior when other potential causes are also present
Term
augmenting principle
Definition
Tendency to attach greater importance to a potential cause of behavior if the behavior occurs despite the presence of other inhibitory causes.
Term
Correspondence Bias/ Fundamental Attribution Error
Definition
tendency to explain others’ actions as stemming from dispositions even in the presence of clear situational causes; tendency to overestimate the impact of dispositional factors. (More common in individualist cultures, Western Europe, US)
Term
Actor- Observer Effect
Definition
Tendency to attribute own behavior mainly to situational causes, but the behavior of others mainly to interval (dispositional causes)
Term
self-serving bias
Definition
Tendency to attribute positive outcomes to internal causes, but negative outcomes to external causes – this bias also more common in individualist cultures.
Term
attribution and depression
Definition
Depressed persons often show a self-defeating pattern of attributions, which is the opposite of self- serving bias.
Term
Impression Management (Self Presentation)
Definition
Efforts to produce favorable first impressions on others
Term
attitudes
Definition
Evaluations of various aspects of the social world
Often influence behavior, especially when they are strong, accessible, and long-standing
Term
social learning theory
Definition
he process through which people acquire new information, forms of behavior, or attitudes from other persons
Term
classical conditioning
Definition
Learning in which one stimulus becomes a signal for the presentation of another stimulus ( learning by association
Term
subliminal conditioning
Definition
Classical Conditioning of attitudes by exposure to stimuli that are below individuals’ threshold of conscious awareness
Term
instrumental conditioning
Definition
learning in which responses that lead o positive outcomes or which avoid negative outcomes are strengthened.
Term
observational learning
Definition
learning in which individuals acquire new forms of behavior as a result of observing others.
Term
third person effect
Definition
the impact of media exposure on others’ attitudes and behaviors is overestimated and the impact on the self is underestimated.
Term
mere exposure
Definition
People form attitudes towards things that they have seen before, but do not necessarily remember seeing.
Term
knowledge function
Definition
attitudes aid in the interpretation of new stimuli
Term
Identity or Self-Expression Function
Definition
attitudes can permit the expression of central values and beliefs and thereby communicate personal identity.
Term
Self-Esteem Function
Definition
holding a particular attitudes can help maintain or enhance feelings of self-worth.

attitudes based on moral convictions are good predictors of behavior.
Term
Ego-Defensive Function
Definition
Claiming particular attitudes can protect people from unwanted or unflattering views of themselves.
For example, when prejudiced people state that they are against prejudice and discrimination they protect themselves from seeing that they are actually bigoted.
Term
Impression Motivation Function
Definition
People can use attitudes to lead others to have a positive view of them. When motivated to do so, the attitudes people express can shift in order to create the desired impression on others.
Term
systematic processing
Definition
Involves careful consideration of message content and ideas (argument strength matters)
Term
central route (to persuasion)
Definition
attitude change resulting from systematic processing of information presented in persuasive messages.
Term
heuristic processing
Definition
Involves the use of simple rules or mental shortcuts (argument strength does not matter).
Term
forewarning
Definition
advance knowledge that one is about to become the target of an attempt at persuasion and increases resistance to the persuasion that follows.
Term
selective avoidance
Definition
Tendency to direct attention away from information that challenges existing attitudes, which increases resistance to persuasion
Term
cognitive dissonance
Definition
An unpleasant internal state which results when individuals notice inconsistency between two or more attitudes or between their attitudes and their behavior.
Term
Self efficacy
Definition
The belief of one’s ability to accomplish a goal in him or herself
Term
self esteem
Definition
degree to which the self is perceived positively or negatively; one’s overall attitude toward the self.
Term
self reference effect
Definition
People seem to orient themselves toward stimuli that are associated with the self and show preferences for objects owned by and reflective of the self.
Term
above average effect
Definition
tendency for people to rate themselves as above the average on most positive social attributes.
Term
Social Comparison Theory
Definition
Festinger (1954) suggested that people compare themselves to others when there is no objective yardstick to evaluate the self against others’ performance
Term
Downward Social Comparison
Definition
comparing oneself to others who do less well than the self
Term
Upward Social Comparison
Definition
comparing oneself to others who do better than the self
Term
Self-Evaluation Maintenance Model
Definition
suggests that to maintain a positive view of the personal self people distance themselves from others who perform better than they do on valued dimensions, but move closer to others who perform worse than they do.
Term
Social Identity Theory
Definition
Suggests that to maintain a positive view of their group identity people will move closer to positive others with whom they share an identity, but distance from ( or derogate) those who perform poorly or somehow make social identity negative ( black-sheep effect)
Term
Ingratiation
Definition
when people try to make others like them by conveying that they like them
-And people can attempt to present themselves to others as possessing positive attributes
Term
processing
Definition
the process of privately thinking about “who one is”
Term
stereotype threat
Definition
an occur when people believe that they might be judged in light of a negative stereotype about their group or that they may because of their performance in some way confirm a negative stereotype of their group.
Term
-Internal Determinants of Attraction
Definition
The need to affiliate and the Basic role of Effect.
Term
Need for Affiliation
Definition
Basic motive to seek and maintain interpersonal relationships
when affiliation needs are not met, sadness and ange may result and cognitive functioning may be affected.
Term
Situational Influences on the need to affiliate
Definition
Threatening situations may increase the need to affiliate
People like to affiliate with those who are experiencing the same negative event.
Term
Affect
Definition
A person’s emotional state: positive and negative feelings and moods
Term
proximity
Definition
In attraction research, the physical closeness between two individuals with respect to where they live, where they sit in a classroom, where they work, and so on.
Term
Repeated Exposure ( Mere Exposure effect)
Definition
Zajonc’s (1968) finding that frequent contact with any mildly negative, neutral, or positive stimulus results in an increasingly positive evaluation of that stimulus
Term
Physical Attractiveness
Definition
a combination of traits that are considered to be beautiful or handsome at the positive extreme and unattractive at the negative extreme.
Term
Similarity-dissimilarity effect
Definition
Consistent finding that people respond positively to indications that another person is similar to themselves and negatively to indications that another person is dissimilar from themselves
Term
Proportion of Similarity
Definition
Number of specific topics on which two people express similar views divided by the total number of topics discussed.
Term
balance theory
Definition
Forumlations of Heider (1958) and of Newcomb ( 1961) that specify the relationships among 1) an individual’s liking for another person, 2) His or her attitude about a given topic 3) The other person’s attitude about the same topic.
Term
Affect-Centered Model of Attraction
Definition
Conceptual framework in which attraction is assumed to be based on positive and negative emotions, which can be aroused directly by another or simply associated with another and can be enhanced or mitigated by cognitive processes.
Term
interdependence
Definition
Common to all close relationships, characterized by an interpersonal association in which two people influence each other’s lives, often focus their thoughts on one another, and regularly engage in joint activites.
Term
Attachment style
Definition
egree of security in interpersonal relationships; style develop on the interactions between infant and caregiver and lead to the formation of two basic attitudes self-esteem (attitudes about one’s self worth) and interpersonal trust ( attitudes about other people)
Term
secure style
Definition
High in both self-esteem and trust; do best in interpersonal relationships
Term
Fearful- Avoidant Style
Definition
Low in both self-esteem and trust; least adaptive attachment style
Term
preoccupied style
Definition
Low in self-esteem and high in trust; strong desire to form a close relationship, but feels unworthy of a partner and is vulnerable to rejection
Term
dismissing style
Definition
High in self-esteem and low in trust; feels deserving of a close relationship, but mistrusts potential partners and tends to reject them to avoid being the one who is rejected
Term
Romantic relationships involve three schemas:
Definition
self schema, parter schema( an idealized schema), relationship schema ( based on illusion )
Term
Passionate Love
Definition
Intense and often unrealistic emotional response to another person. Involves sexual attraction, the desire to be physically close, and an intense need for love to be reciprocated, and these three factors are necessary:
Term
unrequited love
Definition
Love of one person for another who does not feel love in return
Term
Companionate Love
Definition
Based on friendship, mutual attraction, shared interests, respect, and concern for one another’s welfare
Term
Four Styles of love:
Definition
Game playing love, possessive love, logical love, and selfless love
Term
Sterberg’s (1986) Triangular Model of Love
Definition
Conceptualization of love relationships consisting of three basic components: intimacy (closeness felt by two people), passion (sexual motives and excitement), and decision/ commitment (cognitive processes involved in deciding that one is committed to the relationship).
Term
Consummate love-
Definition
A complete and ideal love that combines intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment
Term
Prosocial Behavior
Definition
Helpful action that benefits other people without necessarily providing any direct benefits to the person performing the act, and may even involve a risk for the person who helps.
Term
heroism
Definition
actions that involve courageous risk-taking to obtain a socially valued goal – a dangerous act to save a stranger’s life
Term
bystander effect
Definition
The likelihood of a Prosocial response to an emergency is affected by the number of bystanders whom are present – Kitty Genovese’s murder led to research in this area.
Term
diffusion of responsibility
Definition
bystanders to an emergency share responsibility the more bystanders the less any one of them feels responsible to act.
Term
implicit bystander effect
Definition
Even thinking about a group of people can result in less helping in later, unrelated situations
Term
pluralistic ignorance
Definition
The tendency of bystanders to rely on what other bystanders do and say, even though none of them is sure about what is happening or what to do about it and this “ information” is used to justify the failure to act.
Term
mimicry
Definition
The automatic tendency to imitate those with whom one interacts and results in the increase in one’s Prosocial tendencies.
Term
personality dispositions
Definition
Behavioral tendencies based on genetics, learning experiences, or both, which tend to be stable over time and across situations
Term
empathy
Definition
Complex affective and cognitive response to another person’s emotional distress, feeling the other person’s emotions, feeling sympathetic, trying to see the world from their point of view.
Term
empathy altruism hypothesis
Definition
Prosocial behavior is motivated solely by the desire to help someone in need.
Term
Drive Theories (of aggression)
Definition
Suggest that aggression stems from external conditions that arouse the motive to harm or injure others.
Term
Frustration – aggression hypothesis
Definition
The suggestion that frustration is a very powerful determinant of aggression. (Theory not well supported but remains popular)
Term
Social learning perspective Theory
Definition
eople learn the nuances of aggression through direct experience or by observing others, which includes: ways to harm others, which groups are appropriate targets, what actions justify retaliation, what situations permit or approve of aggression,
Term
general agression model
Definition
Suggests that aggression is triggered by a wide range of input variables, which influence arousal, affective stages, and cognitions. Input variables include situational factors…. Plus more
Term
excitation transfer model
Definition
Suggests that arousal produced in one situation can persist and intensify motional reactions occurring in later situations. – more likely to happen when people are not aware that they are experiencing residual arousal or when people are aware of their arousal but attribute it to the present situation rather than its original source.
Term
group
Definition
collection of persons who are perceived to be bonded together in a coherent unit (entiativity) to some degree. 2 or more people.
Term
roles
Definition
set of behaviors that individuals occupying specific positions within a group are expected to perform
Term
status
Definition
Position or rank within a group
Term
norms
Definition
Rules within a group indicating how its members should , or should not behave
Term
cohesiveness
Definition
Forces that cause group members to remain in the group.
Term
social facilitation
Definition
Effects upon performance resulting from the presence of others
Term
Drive Theory of Social Facilitation (Zajonc)
Definition
Mere presence of others is arousing and increases tendency to perform dominant responses
Term
Distraction-Conflict Theory
Definition

Suggests that social facilitation stems from conflict produced when individuals attempt to pay attention to both the audience and the task

increasing arousal (excitement/nervousness) increasing dominant resposne (negative/positive whether upi perform well or not) 

Term
social loafing
Definition
Reductions in motivation and effort when individuals work collectively in a group compared to when they work individually or as independent co-actors
Term
additive tasks
Definition
Tasks for which the group product is the sum or combination of the efforts of individual members.
Term
Deindividuation
Definition
Characterized by reduced self-awareness and reduced social identity, brought on by external conditions such as being an anonymous member of a large crowd
Term
cooperation
Definition
Behavior in which groups work together to reach shared goals
Term
social dilemmas
Definition
Situations in which each person can increase his or her individual gains by acting in one way, but if all ( or most) persons do the same thing, the outcomes experienced by all are reduced.
Term
reciprocity
Definition
Basic rule suggesting that individuals should treat others as they have treated them ( reciprocal altruism)
Term
conflict
Definition
Individuals or groups perceive that others have taken or will soon take actions incompatible with their own interests
Term
Bargaining (negotiating)
Definition
Process in which opposing sides ecvhange offers, counteroffers, and concessions, either directly or through representatives.
Term
Superordinate Goals
Definition
Goals that both sides seek that tie their interests together.
Term
Distributive Justice
Definition

Individuals’ judgments about whether they are receiving a fair share of available rewards

Such a getting a raise for working hard

Term
Procedural Justice
Definition
Judgments concerning fairness of procedures used to distribute available rewards
Term
Interactional (interpersonal) Justice
Definition

Extent that decisions regarding the distribution of rewards are explained and courtesy is shown toward those who receive the rewards.

(how the giver behaves about handing out the reward)

 

Term
Decision making
Definition
processes involved in combining and integrating available information in order to choose one out of several possible courses of action
Term
social decision schemas
Definition
Rules relating the initial distribution of member views to final group decisions
Term
Majority wins rule
Definition
group adopts whatever decision majority agreed with initially
Term
Truth-wins rule
Definition
group eventually adopts correct decision
Term
First shift rule
Definition
group adopts decision consistent with direction of first shift in opinion shown by any member.
Term
Group Polarization
Definition
Tendency of group members to shift toward more extreme positions after group discussion. Entire group…
Term
social comparison
Definition
an attempt to hold views that are better often more extreme, than other group members
Term
groupthink
Definition
Members of highly cohesive groups assume that their decisions can’t be wrong, that all members must support the groups’ decision strongly, and that information contrary to it should be ignored
Term
Devil’s Advocate Technique
Definition
One group member is assigned the task of disagreeing with and criticizing whatever plan or decision is under consideration
Term
Authentic Dissent
Definition
One or more group members, without assignment, disagree with the groups initial preference.
Term
social neuroscience
Definition

research area that seeks knowledge about the neural and bio

bases of social processes

Term
multicultural perspective
Definition

– a focus on understanding the cultural and ethnic factors

that influence social behavior

Term
systematic observation
Definition
behavior is systematically observed and recorded
Term
systematically observe behavior in natural settings
Definition
naturalistic observation
Term
survey method
Definition

 large number of people answers questions about their attitudes or behavior

Has many advantage

Term
correlation method
Definition

– a scientist systematically observes two or more variables to determine

whether changes in one are accompanied by changes in the other

Term
inferential statistics
Definition

special form of mathematics that allows the evaluation of the likelihood

that a given pattern of research results occurred by chance alone

Term
social cognition
Definition

 how people interpret, analyze, remember and use information about the social

worl

Term
bargaining 
Definition

 process in which opposing sides exchange offers, counteroffers, and concessions,

either directly or through rep

Term
distributive justice
Definition

 individuals’ judgements about whether they are receiving a fiar share of

available reward

Term
procedural justice
Definition

judgements concerning fairness of procedures used to distribute available

rewards

Term
naive realism 
Definition
 also known as direct realism or common sense realism, is a philosophy of mind rooted in atheory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world
Term
what is incorporated in our self-concept?
Definition
our close relationships
Term
When in a good mood we rely on ....
Definition
hueristics 
Term
justifying conformity
Definition
when we conform we act in ways the run counter to our to our private beliefs
Term
To be considered a science, a field must adhere to 4 core values:
Definition
accuracy, objectivity, skepticism, open-mindedness
Term
The focus of Social Psychology
Definition
Focuses on the individual, and how they think, feel, and behave among social groups
Term
We cant rely on common sense because
Definition
such sources prove to be inconsistent and unreliable.
Common sense shows to be contradictory
Term
5 Categories of conditions that affect social behavior and thought:
Definition
Actions & characteristics of other people

Cognitive processes/ memory and inferences

Environmental Variables

Cultural context

Biological factors
Term
social categorization
Definition
how we decide whether individuals belong to one social category or another- pictures were shown to individuals and their stimulus was measured with electrical activity in the brain


RESULT-social categorization occurs very quickly-within one hundred milliseconds of seeing someone.
Term
implicit egoism
Definition
-an unconscious tendency toward self-enhancement
Our feelings about anything in the world are influenced by its relationship to our self concept
The closer someone/thing is closer to our self concept, the more we tend to like him or it
Term
multicultural perspective
Definition
a focus on understanding the cultural and ethnic factors that influence social behavior. It takes into consideration age, gender, orientation, raciality, disabilities etc.
Term
How do we process information?
Definition
systematically & heuristics
Term
Representative heuristic:
Definition
strategy for making judgments based on extent to which current stimuli or events resemble other stimuli or categories “the more similar an individual is to typical members of a given group, the more likely they belong to that group.
Term
Availability heuristic
Definition
the easier it is to bring information to mind, the greater is its impact on subsequent judgments
Term
priming
Definition
increased availability in memory of specific types of info held in memory due to exposure to specific stimuli/events
Term
Anchoring and adjustment heuristic-
Definition
tendency to use a number or value as starting point and then make adjustments- car example
Term
Counterfactual thinking:
Definition
tendency to imagine “what might have been”
occur automatically, & make ppl assume bad things as unavoidable
Term
thought suppression
Definition
efforts to prevent certain thoughts- ex- when on a diet, try not to think about deserts.
Term
how do we accomplish thought suppression
Definition
A) monitoring b) operating
Term
Co-relational method
Definition
when soc pysch attempt to determine whether and to what extend different variables are related to e/o.
Term
IMPORTANT JUST READ IT
Definition
Although you may not believe you are prejudice, you behave that way, due to the stereotypes that are automatically activated.
You can still be influenced by a stereotype and behave inline of a stereotype.
The only way to not be influenced is to be aware that you are going to be potentially influenced by stereotypes.
Unfortunately, people act on their prejudice feelings and behave in some sort of racist way.
Rebound effect - when the forbidden task is allowed, it will come back to you stronger (Example: White bears)
Term
decision-problem
Definition
defined by the acts and/or options among which one must choose, possible outcomes (consequences) of these choices or acts, and the contingencies or conditional probabilities associated with a particular choice.
Term
certainty effect
Definition
a reduction of the probability of an outcome by a constant factor has more impact when the outcome was initially certain than when it was merely probable.
Term
The pseudo-certainty effect
Definition
when an outcome only has the appearance of being certain by is in fact really quite illusory.
Term
Existential terror
Definition
anxiety stemming from awareness that we’ll inevitable die
Terror management theory-suggests ways that people attempt to deal with threat of dying when their own mortality is salient- since they know all die
Term
above average effect
Definition
thinking that we are better than the average person, evidence for our desire to think of ourselves as positive. Even when we get negative feedback, evidence shows we forget it quickly.
Term
black sheep effect
Definition
when a member of the ingroup behaves in way that threatens the value of the group identity and is intensely derogates as a means of protecting group identity
Term
self evaluation maintenance model-
Definition
perspective that suggests that in order to maintain a positive view of the personal self we distance ourselves from others who perform better than we do on valued dimensions, but more closer to those who perform worse- as this protects our self-esteem
Term
social identity theory
Definition
our response when our group identity is salient. Suggests that we will move closer to positive other with whom we share an identity, but distance from others ingroup members who perform poor.
Term
ingratiation
Definition

when people try to make others like them by conveying that they like them

Term
self-monitoring
Definition
Tendency to regulate behavior based on external events
Term
Introspection
Definition
to privately think about who we are
Term
chameleon effect
Definition
High self monitors usually excel at this. They engage in role-playing in order to be positively evaluated by others.
Whether you are a high or low self-monitor has many implications for your behavior and, indeed, your life and your relationships.
Term
What makes up the self?
Definition
1. Social identities
2. Close Relationships
Term
stereotype threat
Definition
when people believe they might be judged in light of a negative stereotype about their social identity or that they may inadvertently act in some way to confirm the stereotype of the group.
Term
three process through which social learning occurs:
Definition
1: Classical conditioning of attitudes

2: Instrumental conditioning

3: Observational Learning
Term
Why we form attitudes in the first place?
Definition
Serve a knowledge function

Serve as an identity or self-expression function

Serves a self-esteem function

Serves an ego-defensive function

Serves an impression motivation function
Term
Theory of planned behavior:
Definition
The idea that people carefully consider the implications of their actions before they act. We consider our various options, then evaluate the consequences of each and every one, and reach a decision to act or not. That decision is then reflected in our behavioral intentions-our intentions are the single best predictor of our behavior.
Term
Attitude-to-behavior process model:
Definition
Focuses on the influence of both attitudes and stored knowledge of what is appropriate to do in a given situation based on the individuals definition of the present situation. Influences overt beha
Term
cognitive dissonance
Definition
That little uncomfortable feeling that you get when your behavior is not consistent with your attitudes or when you hold two or more attitudes that conflict with each other.
Term
trivialization
Definition
mentally minimizing the importance of the attitudes or behaviors that are inconsistent with each other.
Term
self-affirmation
Definition
restoring of positive self-evaluations that are threatened y the dissonance.
Term
spreading of alternatives
Definition
when making a decision between two things, one tends to reduce the positivity of item not chosen.
Term
Induced or (forced) Compliance
Definition
situations where you feel compelled to say or do things inconsistent with your real attitudes
Term
JUST READ IT IMPORTANT
Definition
Dissonance will be stronger when we have few reasons for engaging attitude-discrepant behavior. If we cant easily explain away our behavior to ourselves, then the dissonance will be very intense.
Effect: the fact that offering individuals small rewards for engaging in counter attitudinal behavior often produces more dissonance, and so more attitude change, than when offering large rewards.
It is therefore easier to change a person’s attitudes by offering them just barely enough inducement to get them to behave in a way that runs counter to their attitudes.
In other words, less reason/smaller rewards to get people to engage in counter attitudinal behavior produces more dissonance & leads to more attitude change than offering them larger rewards.
TO KNOW: a) The less leads to more effect occurs only in situations in which people believe they have a choice to perform or not attitude-discrepant behavior. b) small rewards lead to greater attitude change only when people believe that they are personally responsibly for both the chosen course of action and negative effects it produces. c) effect leads to greater attitude change when people view their payment they receive as a bribe rather than a well-deserved payment for services rendered.
Term
To be the most effective in getting people to change problem behavior:
Definition
1. Get them to publicly advocate the behavior you desire to change
2. Get them to think about their own failures to show the behavior in the past
3. Give them direct means for reduction of their dissonance
Term
Major means of social influence:
Definition
1. Persuasion
2. Conformity
Term
Ways to resist persuasion attempts:
Definition
1.Reactance: negative reactions to efforts by others to reduce our freedom by getting us to do what they want. We change our attitudes in opposite behavior (negative attitude change).
2. Forewarning: advance knowledge that one is about to become target of persuasion as it increases the resistance to persuasion
3. selective avoidance- tendency to direct attention away from information that challenges existing attitudes.(selective exposure)
4. actively defending out attitudes
Term
Justifying conformity
Definition
when we conform, and in doing so, act in ways that run counter to our private beliefs (causing cognitive dissonance) we tend to alter our perceptions of the situation so that our conformity seems justified.
Term
How do you get people to comply with what you want them to do?
Definition
1. Friendship- liking= we tend to get complicance more readily from friends or people who like us than others.
2. Commitment/consistency= if we have committed ourselves to an action or position, we are more likely to comply with requests for behavior that is consistent with that position than inconsistent
3. Scarcity- we tend to comply with requests that focus on scarcity bc we value and seek outcomes that are scarse in their avaiability
4. Reciprocity- if someone has done u a favor, we tend to feel obligated in returning it by complying with a request from them
5. Social validation- if we think people are similar to us are acting or behaving in a certain way, we tend to agree also to comply with the request (because we want to be correct)
6. Authority- we tend to comply with requests from people who are in positions of authority.
Term
The foot in the door technique:
Definition
Start with a small request and once they’ve agreed, you move on to larger one
Term
The Lowball procedure:
Definition
Another consistence based tactic.
You get someone to agree to a “good deal” and then you change it to make the deal less advantageous.
Term
The door-in-the-face technique:
Definition
-the-face technique:
Instead of beginning with a small request and then moving on to a large one, this technique starts off with a very large request and, once it is rejected, move on to a smaller one
Term
“That’s not all” tactic
Definition
adding something at the endfor same price, before costumers have decided yes or no on that specific product/request
Term
Playing hard to get:
Definition
Things that are rare are more values than things that are plentiful
Things that are hard to obtain are more valued than things that are easily acquired
Term
The deadline technique:
Definition
Similarly, opportunities that might evaporate are more attractive than those always available.
Thus we are likely to get convinced to purchase something we don’t need if it says “sale today only!”
Term
Complaining
Definition
We often engage in complaining to elicit advice, sympathy, information, or to get someone do to what we want them to do
Term
Social validation
Definition
we often comply with other’s requests for actions that we view as consistent with what persons similar to ourselves are doing/thinking
Term
Symbolic social influence:
Definition
social influence resulting from the mental representation of others or of our relationships with them
Term
obedience
Definition
Used less often than compliance or conformity but it is nonetheless far from rare.
Term
Why do people engage in destructive obedience?
Definition
If they feel they wont be personally held accountable for outcomes.
Term
Fixed-sum error
Definition
the tendency for bargainers to assume that each side places the same importance or priority as the other on every issue 
Term
superordinate goals
Definition
goals that both sides to a conflict seek and that tie their interestss together rather than dricing them apart
Term
Social Psychology focuses on
Definition
actions & characteristics , cognitive processes ( memories & inferences), environmental variables (weather), cultural context, biological factors.
Term
Multicultural Perspective –
Definition
a focus on understanding the cultural and ethnic factors that influence social behaviour
Term
Systematic Observation-
Definition
a method of research in which behaviour is systematically observed and recorded
Term
Survey Method
Definition
a method of research in which a large number of persons answer questions about their attitudes or behaviour
Term
Correlational Method-
Definition
a method of research in which a scientist systematically observes 2 or more variables to determine whether changes in one are accompanied by changes in the other
Term
Schemas very important for 3 basic processes:
Definition
-Attention (what is noticed)
- Encoding (What is stored in memory)
- Retrieval (What is recovered from memory)
Term
Important causes of social behaviour and thought include...
Definition
 the behaviour and characteristics of other persons, cognitive processes, aspects of the physical environment, culture, and biological factors
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