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Scientific Inquiry Exam 2
Cereals, Fruits, Vegetables, Legumes, GMO's, Organic food
103
Science
Undergraduate 1
04/04/2013

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Term
Cereals
Definition
-The most important agricultural crop in the world
- Named after the Roman goddess Ceres
- Occupies 70% of farmland
Term
The Big 3
Definition
- Wheat, corn, rice
- Oats, barley, rye
- Also annuals
Term
Characteristics of Cereals
Definition
-Can be stored dry
-Good root system, requiring less water (Rice being an exception)
- High yield per acre (in tons, calories, and protein)
Term
Characteristics of Cereals II
Definition
- Are grasses
- Have male and female structures in the same flower (perfect flower) [except corn]
Term

Seeds of cereals

Definition
-Grains
Term
Three parts to Cereal Grains: Bran
Definition

-Hard outer seed

1) rich in fiber, essential fatty acids, vitamins and minerals

2) removed in milling to ‘soften’ flour

 

 

Term

   Agricultural Improvements (after 10,000 years)

Definition

- Equal tiller (seedling) growth

- Equal fruiting time

- Eliminate branching (pinch buds to produce larger, sweeter fruit)

- No shattering


 

Term
Three Parts of grains: Germ
Definition

-the embryo of the seed

1) Source of essential nutrients: Vitamin E, folate, phosphorus, thiamin, zinc and magnesium

2) Essential fatty acids and a good source of fiber

3) Removed in milling     

 

Term
Three Parts of Grain
Definition
[image]
Term
Wheat Origins
Definition

-SW Asia

-Only grain used to make bread, noodles, spaghetti

Term
Winter Wheat
Definition
-Grown in the south
-Sowing in late Fall
-Harvesting in May
-Has more gluten
Term
Spring Wheat
Definition
-grown in the north, where winter is too cold for the plants to grow/survive
-sowing in early Spring
- harvesting in Fall
Term
Grains 2 Major Components
Definition
-Starch
-Gluten: proteins with elastic properties
Term
Corn Origins
Definition
- Originated in the New World; "American crop"
-Ancestor is teosinte
a) Teosinte was improved by American natives to become modern corn
b) Six genes changed between teosinte and corn
Term
Properties of Corn
Definition
- The grain (kernel) has no gluten and cannot be used to make bread
-Has little of the essential amino acid lysine
Term
Corn and the US
Definition
-U.S. grows about 50% of the world crop
-More than 50% of the crop is used to feed animals
-About 10% of the crop is made into corn starch
a) food thickening
b) beer
c) high fructose corn syrup
Term
Rice Origins
Definition
-Originated in Asia and spread to Europe then to the Americas
-Feeds more people than wheat or corn does
Term
Rice: Traditional (labor intensive)
Definition
-Sow in dry land (start early, save space, organized growth)
-Transfer short plants to water-logged paddies
-Harvest by cutting all above the ground
Term
Rice: in the US (energy intensive)
Definition
-Airplane sowing
-Flooding by an irrigation system
-Drainage
-Harvest by machine
Term
Advantages of Traditional Rice Planting
Definition
-Standing water can prevent weed growth
-Ferns growing on the standing water have photosynthetic bacteria in leaf pockets that take in nitrogen and turn it into ammonia (fertilizer)
Term
Subspecies of Rice: Indica, Japonica, Wild Rice
Definition
-“long grain” grains are separate, drier -“Short grain” grains are sticky, wetter -not of the same genus
Term
Brown Rice
Definition
-Unattractive, doesn’t taste as good
-Cannot be stored as long (6-8 weeks)
-Has Vitamin B1 (essential vitamin)
Term
White Rice in the US
Definition
-Vitamin B1 -Corn syrup (tastier) -Corn starch (sticky) -Don't need to wash in U.S.
Term
Legumes
Definition
a) Beans b) Peas c) Lentils d) Pulses e) Peanuts
Term
Beans and Nitrification
Definition
-Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by bacteria that is made available to plants by nodules on legume roots -Production of nitrates
Term
Denitrification
Definition
-Conversion of nitrate to nitrous oxide and nitrogen gas a) Amino acids + Nucleic acids = nitrogen b) Balances nitrogen fixation c) N2– inorganic, plants and animals can’t access
Term
Properties of Beans
Definition
-Like cereals, can be stored dry for extended periods of time -Proteins are deficient in some essential amino acids, but complement cereals -can "make" their own nitrogen fertilizers
Term
Crop Rotation
Definition
Corn: removes nitrates faster --> Soy: legumes add to nitrates --> Fallow: increases fertilizer due to bacteria
Term
Soybean Origins
Definition
-China's poor man's meat -US started growing in 1930's a) Considered to be a bad crop b/c of a poison in the bean b) found that heating destroyed the poison c) Since 1960’s rapid increase in production d) now: cash value is similar to that of corn
Term
Soybeans superiority
Definition
a) more protein- 44% by weight (other beans ~10%) b) more oil- 10% (other beans ~2-4%) c) less starch d) has all 8 essential amino acids
Term
Soybean uses
Definition
-Oil -Protein (immitation "meat") -Solid --> Fermentation--> soy sauce -Liquid: Soy milk, tofu
Term
Soybeans and Estrogen
Definition
-Contains isoflavones (acts as estrogen) -Isoflavones were thought to help stave off breast cancer since Asian women have lower rates -Mixed evidence
Term
Peanut Origins
Definition
-Fruit, Brits call it "groundnut" -South Americas, sent to Africa where European plantaion managers fed them to slaves -Slaves brought to N. America after cotton crop deteriorated due to infestation
Term
Peanut Properties
Definition
-Grows well in poor, wet soil in the south -Makes its own fertilizer -After fertilization, flower stalks elongates and curve downward -Protective cap froms at the tip and helps push flower underground
Term
U.S. Consumption of Peanuts
Definition
-Peanut butter -Animal feed -Peanut oil
Term
Alfalfa
Definition
-Top cash crop in California, South Dakota, Wisconsin -Perennial plant grows best in sandy soil -Mostly grown for hay (6-7 cuttings) -High nutritional value: high protein, easily digestible fiber, formed into cubes
Term
Nitrification
Definition
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Term
Fruit
Definition
-Enlarged flower after fertilization which adds in the dispersal of the seed
a) fresh fruits
b) “dry” fruits (e.g. cereals and nuts)
c) vegetables (e.g. tomato)
Term
Fruits
Definition
-Enlarged flower could be ovary wall, flower stalk, etc
-About 80% of agri crops are fruits
Term
Simple Fruit (single fruit)
Definition
a) one ovary containing several fertilized eggs
b) e.g. apples
Term
Aggregate fruit
Definition
a) several ovaries in one flower
b) e.g. strawberry, raspberry
Term
Multiple Fruit
Definition
a) cluster of flowers each of which has one ovary
b) pineapples, figs
Term
Pericarp; Exocarp, MesoCarp, Endocarp
Definition
-Fruit wall that develops from the ovary wall
-outer layer
-middle layer
-inner layer
Term
Dry Fruits
Definition
-May have a tough, woody, or thin papery pericarp
-Divided into two categories, Dehiscent and Indehiscent
-His=split
Term
Dry fruits: Dehiscent Fruits
Definition
-Split open at maturity and release seeds individually (e.g. magnolia, cotton)
Term
Dry Fruit: Indehiscent Fruits
Definition
-Do not split open; use other means to disperse their seeds; single seeded fruits (e.g. sunflower, samaras, grains and nuts
Term
Grains and Nuts
Definition
-Single-seeded indehiscent fruit
-one seeded fruits with stony pericarp: hazelnuts, walnuts, acorns
-Peanuts, almonds and cashews are actually seeds not nuts
Term
Simple Fruits: Berries
Definition
-Thin exocarp (skin of the fruit), soft fleshy mesocarp, an endocarp enclosing one to many seeds
-Tomatoes, dates, blueberries, grapes
Term
Simple Fruits: Hesperidium
Definition
-A berry with a tough, leathery rind
-The rind is the exocarp, the mesocarp is the white below (albedo), endocarp is the juice vesicles
-Oranges, lemons, and other citrus
Term
Simple Fruits: Pepo
Definition
-Aspecialized berry with a tough outer rind, mesocarp and endocarp are fleshy (generally eat the mesocarp)
a) all members of the squash family (pumpkins an melons) cucumbers
Term
Simple Fruits: Drupes
Definition
-thin exocarp, fleshy mesocarp, hard stony endocarp that encases the seed (usually one seed)
a) peaches, cherries, olives, plums
b) the pit (endocarp) incases the seed
Term
Simple Fruits: Pomes
Definition
- most of the fleshy part develops from the enlarged base of the flower (accessory tissues) a) apples and pears b) the core is the ovary
Term
Seedless fruits: Triploid System
Definition
-A 1n sex cell fertilizes a 2N sex cell (produced artificially) to make a 3N seed- 3 sets of genes/chromosomes
-infertile
-Watermelon, pineapple, some banana
Term
Seedless fruits: "Virgin fruit"
Definition
-Fruit formation without fertilization
-Spontaneous in nature, but can be triggered with hormones
Term
Seedless Fruits
Definition
-Mutation or artificial manipulation can change the interaction between hormones and plant growth, so that a fruit is produced without fertilization
-Natural mutation followed by artificial selection (navel oranges, some bananas)
-Spraying plant hormones (not practical for watermelon, but is for grapes)
Term
Apples
Definition
-Originated in Western Asia
-highly adaptable (temperate, subtropical, tropical)
-Picked after they are ripe
-Can be preserved for a long time with good ventilation to remove a ripening hormone (ethylene gas) produced by apples
Term
Apples in NY
Definition

a) 10 million trees in production in 697 orchards

b) on averages NY produces 30 million bushels, 55% sold for fresh eating in NY and surrounding states

c) NY ranks second in the nation in production

d) 10,000 direct agricultural jobs, 7,500 indirect jobs (handling, distribution, marketing, shipping)

e) Value of the crop for 2008 was $300 million

Term
Properties of Apples
Definition
a) fat free b) one provides as much dietary fiber as a bowl of bran cereal; 1/5 of the recommended daily intake of fiber c) are loaded with pectin, a soluble fiber that aids digestion and my help reduce caner and heart disease d) provide boron, an essential trace element that helps harden bones
Term
Grapes
Definition
-Wine grapes
-Raisin (soft, sweet, seedless, dried in the field)
-Juice, jams, jellies
Term
NY and Grapes
Definition
a) 1384 grape farms
b) grape sales $30 million
c) grape juice revenue $27 million
d) winery sales $420 million
e) 2/3 of NY grape harvest is of Concord grapes- most of which is used in the winery industry
Term
Banana
Definition
-Tropical, monocot plant that looks like palm, but is not in the palm family
-perfect flower (male and female)
-Eggs are not fertilized, fruits are formed without fertilization
-I. Picked green and hard and may be treated with the ripening hormone (ethylene) before selling
Term
Banana Origins
Definition
- SE Asia, spread to Africa, Central and South America
-In the US, accustomed to only 1 variety chosen for its "harvestable, preservable, ripening-inducible" ability
-U.S. United Fruit Co. dominated the market for more than 50 years.
-Small Latin American nations which are called “banana republics” the setup was usually not good for the local economy
Term
Coconut
Definition
-Tropical, monocot plant in the palm family
-Male and female are in separate flowers on the same plant
-"Man's most useful plant"
Term
Coconut: "Man's most useful plant"
Definition
a) Fiber- door and floor mats, hut roof, fuel
b) Shell- containers
c) Immature: liquid (coconut milk) for drinking
Term
Coconut: "Man's most useful plant"
Definition
d) Mature: white solid (copra) for eating, oils, soap/detergent, coconut water has the same amount of electrolytes as blood
e) Leaves- clothing, hut roof
f) Stem- building materials, fuel
Term
Vegetables
Definition
-Major starch source
-In some parts, they can be expensive

a) Seasonal
b) Perishable
c) Transportation is costly
Term
Root Vegetables: Vegetables, Staple, Sweets
Definition
-Carrot, turnip
-Sweet potato, cassava
-Sugar beet
Term
Stem: Tuber, Rhizome
Definition
-Potato, yam, taro (stems modified for storage underground)
-Ginger (above ground storage organs)
Term
Stem: Bulb, Stem, Auxilary bud
Definition
-Onion
-Asparagus, Sugar cane
-Brussel sprouts
Term
Leaves: Leaves, Base
Definition
-Lettuce, spinach, beet
-Celery
Term
Flowers: Immature, Flower buds
Definition
-Artichokes
-Broccoli, cauliflower
Term
Starchy Vegetables: Potato and Cassava
Definition
-have low contents of proteins in the storage organs and require little nitrogen fertilizer
-are not as dry or good fro storage as cereals and beans are
-can be left in the field un-harvested to guard against fire, typhoon, bandits, and soldiers
Term
Potato and Cassava Reproduction
Definition
-asexual reproduction:
i. Potato “potato eyes”
ii. Cassava: stem cuttings
Term
Potatoes
Definition
-Underground stems
-Native to highland regions of the Andes
-Hardy and mature in 90-120 days, several crops
Term
Cassava
Definition
-Yucca, manioc, manihot
-Native to New World
-Grows well in tropics
-Hardy and resistant to pests (due to cyanide)
-Cultivation requires little labor
-Ground to powder and added to food, tapioca, pudding, baby food
Term
Sugar Cane Origins
Definition
a) Flowers in temperate regions
b) Does not flower in tropical regions
c) Originated in eastern Asia and spread to Europe
d) 1400s: Italians established plantations on the islands off West Africa
e) 1500s: Portuguese, Spanish and British established plantations in Central America
i. needed slave workers
ii. initiated major slave trade from Africa
Term
Sugar Cane Properties
Definition
-Tropical, perennial grass
-grows 12-18 ft tall
-Harvested several times, new stems (tillers) grow from base and make new plants
-70% of the worlds sugar production (sucrose)
Term
Sugar Cane Uses
Definition
a) Crush to extract juice
b) Raw sugar → direct use, rum
c) White sugar
d) Sugar cane left over after sugar extraction can be fermented to make alcohol
Term
Sugar Beet
Definition
-25% of sugar production
-Biennial, harvested in first year
-Originated in Mediterranean region
-1800's had 2% sugar, now it has 20% sugar
Term
Methods of Genetic Engineering
Definition
a) Find a useful gene from any organism (plant 1)
b) Put the gene into an organism (plant 2)
c) Put the gene into the cells
d) The gene must be in chromosome and in the sex organs of the plant to be heritable
e) Regenerate the cells into a whole plant (plant 3 GMO)
Term
Advantages of GMO crops
Definition
-Herbicide resistant- soybeans: round-up ready (used in ~75% GM crops)
-Pest-resistant- BT corn (used in ~20%
-Cold/salt/drought tolerant
Term
Phytoremediation and Molecular farming
Definition
-Using plants to extract poison from the soil
-Better nutrition, pharmaceuticals, antibodies, "golden rice'
Term
GMO Crops being grown
Definition
Transgenic Area
World US
-Soybean 50 90
-Corn 25 70
-Cotton 20 50
-Canola 8
Term
Regulations on GMO Foods: EPA, USDA, FDA
Definition
-Evaluates GM plants for environmental safety
-Evaluates whether the plant is safe to grow
-Evaluates whether the plant is safe to eat
Term
Labeling GMO Foods: Agribusiness, Consumer interests groups
Definition
-Should be voluntary and influenced by the demands of the market
-Want it to be mandatory to label, consumer’s rights, agribusiness unreliable
Term
Criticisms of GMO Foods
Definition
a) Upsetting the environment too fast and too harsh
b) Harmful to other organisms
c) Gene transfer to non-targeted species (e.g. Non-GM crops, weeds)
d) Reducing the effectiveness of herbicides and existing pest control methods
Term
Criticism of GMO Foods: Health, Economy
Definition
-Allergens, unknown effect on human health
-Farming controlled by large agribusiness (e.g. sale of herbicides and GM seeds)
-Hurting the great majority of peasants (holding small farms and less educated) in developing countries
Term
Bottom Line for GMO
Definition
a) Help farmers and consumers on a long-term basis
b) Provide safe food products under existing government regulations
c) Harm the environment/ ecosystem (e.g. herbicide or pest resistant genes getting into non-GM crops and weeds)
d) Hurt small farmers in rural areas in developing countries (being out competed)
Term
Golden Rice Origins
Definition
- For children, a lack of vitamin A causes severe visual impairments and blindness and significantly increases the risk of severe illness, and death, from common infections such as diarrhea and measles
-Due to VAD causing blindness in children a team of scientists DONATED their time and the materials to make a FREE GMO rice crop that produces extra Vitamin A
-The rice is golden in color due to the extra carotene present in the grain
Term
Golden Rice
Definition
- Is opposed by many environmental groups including Greenpeace, mainly because it is a GMO
-Is not widely used partly due to mistrust of the US and GMO’s but also due to lack of familiarity with that rice variety
Term
Other forms of sugar: Agave, Honey
Definition
-Manufacturers use different types of sweeteners so they can conceal how much sugar is in the product
-Made from the core of the agave plant, mostly fructose with glucose
-from flower nectars, mixture of glucose and sucrose, a "natural" manufactured product
Term
Forms of Sugar: Maple Syrup, Truvia
Definition
-From maple tree sap
a) in earl spring, starch reserves in tree trunk are converted to sugar to support new growth of the tree before it can make leaves for photosynthesis
-made from the stevia plant
a) rebiana gives the plant its sweetness, leaves = 30-40x more sweet, extracts up to 300x sweeter
b) not a sugar chemically
Term
Organic Standard
Definition
-w/o the use of conventional pesticides
-w/o artificial fertilizers or sewage sludge
-animals reared w/o the routine use of antibiotics and w/o of growth hormones
Term
Organic Standard cnt'd
Definition
-Food produced without ionizing radiation
-without the use of a wide range of food additives
-no GMO's
-Accounts for 3-4% of total food sales
-maintains strict physical separation of organic products from non-certified ones
Term
National Organic Program (NOP)
Definition
-the federal regulatory framework governing organic food
-covers fresh and processed agriculture food products, including crops and livestock
-use farmland that has been free from chemicals for 3 or more years
Term
Three levels of Organic: "100% Organic"
Definition
-Products made entirely with certified organic ingredients and methods
-Can use the seal
Term
Three levels of Organics: "Organic"
Definition
-Products with 95% of organic ingredients
-Can use the seal
Term
Three levels of Organics: "Made with organic ingredients"
Definition
-minimum of 70% organic ingredients
-can't use seal
Term
Organic seeds
Definition
-cost 3-5 more than uncertified seeds
-only handful of varieties of crops available
-strict certification favors large scale production
Term
Criticism of Organic
Definition
-Organic food is elitist
-Food safety
-Organic food has "sold out"
-Sustainability: Pesticide use: it is a common misconception that organic agriculture does not use pesticides
Term
Claimed Beliefs of Organic Food for the Environment
Definition
-does not put synthetic pesticides/herbicides out (can harm local wildlife)
-better at sustaining diverse ecosystems than conventional farms
-uses less energy and produces less waste such as packaging materials for chemicals
Term
Claimed Beliefs: For Producers
Definition
-Less pesticide exposure for farm workers
Term
Claimed Beliefs: For Consumers
Definition
-Less pesticide exposer to consumers, we get a lot from our diets
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