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RDA I - Midterm 1
Chapters 1-4 and part of 15
121
Psychology
Undergraduate 2
09/30/2011

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Cards

Term
Method of Tenacity (def)
Definition
"I've hear that a lot" - ideas are often accepted as being true because they have been around as long as anyone can remember or because they have been repeated over and over again
Term
Method of Tenacity (examples)
Definition
opposites attract
slogans and advertising
superstitious behaviour such as walking under a ladder
Term
Problems with the Method of Tenacity
Definition
No on when ever checks it's validity, don't consider other ideas, ideas or products aren't subjected to skeptical, critical and objective scrutiny...they are accepted at face value
Term
What are the methods of knowing? (6)
Definition
1 - Method of Tenacity
2 - Method of Authority
3 - Method of Faith
4 - Method of Intuition
5 - Rational Method
6 - Method of Empiricism
Term
Method of Authority (def)
Definition
"Ask an Expert" - rely on someone with superior knowledge to give us the knowledge and facts. A quick and easy way to get facts (remember to get a second expert opinion)
Term
When using the method of tenacity what type of questions should you ask yourself?
Definition
Credibility of the source...
Does the person know what they are talking about?
Are they really an expert on this topic?
Is this person trustworthy?
Does the person have something to gain themslves by making you believe something?
Term
Method of Faith (def and ex)
Definition
"Ask your dad" - you accept the word of an authority because you have total faith in the authority figure. involves accepting someone else's idea of the truth without challenging it
ex: bible
Term
Method of Intuition (def and ex)
Definition
"I've got a feeling" (that tonight's gonna be a good night....not actually. i'm at the library.it's friday) Fairly common, it is the tendency that we accept something as being true just because it feels right. a gut feeling. Not supported by any credible evidence
ex:after you've just met someone you instantly take a liking to them, or you dislike them
Term
Rational Method (def, pro, con)
Definition
That makes sense/sounds reasonable - thinking things through to find answers and solve problems, using logical reasoning.
Pro: often leads us to reasonable answers, because it relies on memory and logical reasnoing skills
Con: these things can be faulty, humans make a lot of errors in reasoning
Term
Method of Empiricism (def)
Definition
"I won't believe it until i see it for myself" - a way of knowing through direct experience (taste, touch, smell, sight, hearing). It's not enough to know something through reason or tenacity
Term
Naive Empiricism (ex)
Definition
just because you've never traveled to india doesn't mean it doesn't exist....optical illusions,
can't always rely on what you see with your eyes
Term
Scientific Method (def)
Definition
an approach to finding things out that combines all of the methods of knowing in order to achieve a more valid and reliable answer to questions
Term
Key Elements of the Scientific Method: Objectivity
Definition
don't want my opinions, biases or beliefs to affect my results, or to have expectations about how the study will turn out
Term
Key Elements of the Scientific Method: Empirical
Definition
involves objective, systematic, planned observations
Term
Key Elements of the Scientific Method: Public
Definition
We are able to confirm the observations of others. Anyone else should be able to copy the study and confirm the original findings
Term
Pseudoscience
Definition
a set of beliefs or practices that claim to be scientific but are not
Term
Research Process: Step 1
Definition
Find a research Idea....select a topic area and find an unanswered question
Term
Research Process: Step 2
Definition
form a hypothesis and a prediction.
A testable hypothesis must state how the variables will be measure and how they will be related.
Term
A Hypothesis must be capable of being _____ or ____. If the results of the study cannot be ______ it isn't valid.
Definition
confirmed or refuted, falsified
Term
Research Process: Step 3
Definition
Determine how you will define and measure your variables
Term
Research Process: Step 4
Definition
Identify and select the participants or subjects for the study
Term
participants are _____ and subjects are ___-______
Definition
human, non-human
Term
Research Process: Step 5
Definition
Select a research strategy
Term
Research Process: Step 6
Definition
Select a research design
Term
Research Process: Step 7
Definition
Conduct the study
Term
Research Process: Step 8
Definition
evaluate (or analyze) the data
Term
Research Process: Step 9
Definition
Report the results
Term
Research Process: Step 10
Definition
refine or reformulate your research idea
Term
Types of Reasoning: Induction/Inductive reasoning
Definition
using relatively small set of observations. Involves going from specific to general. This type of reasoning is used when conducting theories.

ex: considering multiple studies and then coming up with a theoretical principle to explain those results
Term
Types of Reasoning: Deduction/Deductive Reasoning
Definition
going from the general to specific. used when forming a hypothesis.
- might change the original theory or lead to new ideas for new studies
Term
Measuring/Defining Variables: Reliability Measurement
Definition
the consistency or stability of the instrument being used to measure behaviour. A reliable test yields nearly the same results every time the same individual completes the test under the same conditions
Term
What is the measured score equation
Definition
Measured score = True score+ error score
Term
Measured score (def and ex)
Definition
what you actually observe and record. Ex: number of words that you correctly recall on a memory test
Term
True score (def and ex)
Definition
a perfect reflection of the true value and variable being measured, given no other internal or external influences
ex: only have one true IQ score
Term
Error score
Definition
all of the reasons why your true score and measure score differ from each other
Term
3 potential sources of error when measuring variables
Definition
1. Observer error
2. Environmental changes
3. Participant changes
Term
Observer error (def and ex)
Definition
aka human error, errors introduced into the measuring process by the person making the measurements.
ex: starting the stopwatch too soon or stopping too quickly
Term
Environmental Error
Definition
the goal is to do the measurements under the same conditions but that isn't always possible
ex: time of day, temperature
Term
Participant changes
Definition
the participants' health, lack of sleep, sickness etc. any changes in the participants
Term
Test-retest reliability
Definition
giving the same test to the same person on two different occasions
Term
Parallel forms reliability
Definition
giving the same person two different versions of the same test
Term
split-half reliability
Definition
dividing or splitting the test in half (into two parts). if it is reliable then we can split the test in two
Term
inter-rater reliability
Definition
measure of consistency from one rater to another
Term
Validity of measurement
Definition
whether the test measures what is is supposed to measure
Term
Face validity
Definition
looking at a test to determine if it seems to measure what it is supposed to measure
Term
Predictive validity (def and ex)
Definition
the extent to which the scores on a test predict some future behaviour (ex: SAT tests are supposed to predict how well a high school senior will do in college or university)
Term
Concurrent validity
Definition
the extent to which scores on one test are related to scores on another previously validated (well-estabilshed) test
Term
Convergent validity
Definition
the extent to which scores on a test are similar to other measures of the same variable
Term
divergent validity
Definition
the extent to which scores on a test are dissimilar to measures of a different variable
Term
A test (can/cannot) be reliable without being valid.
Definition
can
Term
A test (can/cannot) be valid without being reliable.
Definition
cannot
Term
Scales of measurement
Definition
a set of rules for assigning scores or numbers tht depends largely on the nature of what you are studying and how you are studying it
Term
Nominal scale (def and ex)
Definition
classification of data into one of two or more categories (ex: hair colour, political affiliation, gender). Count the number of students in the class who have blonde hair for ex
Term
Ordinal scale (def and ex)
Definition
classification of data into an order or rank of magnitude (ex: drink sizes... small, medium large) or order of position.
* note: the intervals between the values are not necessarily the same or equal
Term
Interval scale (def and ex)
Definition
the most common scale, the classification of data on a scale that assumes equal distance between the numbers (ex: temperature). Interval scales do not have a true zero value. The zero point on an interval scale is arbitrary.
Term
Ratio Scale (def and ex)
Definition
like interval scales but they do have a true zero value, classification of data on a scale that assumes equal distance and has a true zero value (ex: weight)
Term
What type of scale is this?
Classifying students as blue-eyed, brown-eyed or green-eyed
Definition
nominal
Term
What type of scale is this?
Recording heights of kindergarten students
Definition
ratio
Term
What type of scale is this?
Identifying people by religion
Definition
nominal
Term
What type of scale is this?
Scores on an intelligence test
Definition
interval
Term
What type of scale is this?
measuring the time it takes to run a 100 yard dash
Definition
ratio
Term
What type of scale is this?
Grade level in yars
Definition
ordinal
Term
What type of scale is this?
Intramural athletics choice
Definition
nominal
Term
What type of scale is this?
Number of children in family
Definition
ratio
Term
What type of scale is this?
Income
Definition
ratio
Term
Modalities of measurement (3)
Definition
1- Self-report measures
2- Physiological measures
3- Behavioural measures
Term
Self-report measures (ex and cons)
Definition
ex: questionnaires, surveys, interviews
can be unreliable because sometimes people are dishonest
You are asking participants to share their feelings, attitudes and beliefs directly
Social desirability bias
Term
Social desirability bias
Definition
people have a tendency to response to questions so they look good to researchers, we want ourselves to be seen in a good light
Term
Physiological measures
Definition
ex: EEG, EMG, GSR
EMG is a common measure of stress...our muscles tighten when we are stressed
EEG - provides measure of electrical activity in your brain
MRI - allows you to compare the brain structure of someone with a condition or something without

Con: do these measures truly provide a valid measure of the construct? could be having different bodily reactions because they are scared, excited or nervous
Term
Behavioural measures
Definition
the direct observation and recording of behaviour. A matter of watching and recording whatever the behaviour is as it occurs wherever that may be
Term
Sensitivity of the measure
Definition
ability to detect differences among a group of participants. ex: asking someone if they like another person...most people won't say they dislike someone
Term
Ceiling effect
Definition
the scores pile up at the top of the distribution because the task was too easy
Term
floor effect
Definition
the scores pile up at the bottom of the distribution because the task was too difficult
Term
Reactivity
Definition
refer to the tendency of people to alter their behaviour when they know they are being watched
Term
demand characteristics
Definition
refers to various hints and clues in the research situation that participants used to decide how they think they should behave
Term
good subject role
Definition
participants behave in the way they think the researcher wants them to behave, rather than how they would normally behave
Term
Negativistic subject role
Definition
aka the screw you effect, just screw up the study
Term
Experimenter bias
Definition
the expectations or personal beliefs of the person performing the research influences the results of the study
Term
How can you solve experimenter bias? (3)
Definition
- ensure that the researcher is well trained and well practiced
- Single-blind study
- Double-blind study
Term
Single-blind study
Definition
the participant is unaware of which group (ex: drug or placebo) he or she is participating within, only the researcher knows
Term
Double-blind study
Definition
neither the participant nor the researcher knows which group the participant has been placed into
Term
In the USA ethics are reviewed by ____ ____ ____ and in Canada ____ _____ _____
Definition
institutional review boards, and research ethics boards
Term
Briefly explain the tuskagee syphilis study
Definition
(1932-1972) –
Researchers told the men they would be receiving treatment for their syphilis. None of them were treated because the goal of the study was to see the effects of syphilis left untreated. Even though we had a cure, the treatment was still deliberately withheld from these people. 74 of the 399 men survived, 40 of the mens wives were infected and 19 of their children were infected through genital syphilis…. The government offered an apology in 1997 but only 8 people were still living.
Term
Nuremberg Code
Definition
came out in 1947 after the 2nd world war due to how people were treated in concentration camps and such... in order to protect the well-being of humans from unethical research
Term
Informed consent
Definition
a participant's consent or agreement to take part in a research study after he/she has been given all the information necessary by the researcher to make that decision (duration, it's voluntary, general summary)
Term
Deception
Definition
intentionally misleading participants about the true purpose of the research study
Term
Passive deception
Definition
intentionally withholding (or keeping back) information from participants
Term
Active deception
Definition
intentionally misleads (or presents) to the participants, or presents misinformation
Term
Debriefing
Definition
informing participants of the true purpose of the research study, particularly when deception is used
Term
Tri-council policy statement (2010)
Definition
the official human ethics policy of Canada’s three main granting agencies. Studies involving human participants are reviewed under these guidelines. Combines policy of Canada’s three major granting agencies that give professors grants for projects and programs.
Term
Basic principles of ethical research: (4)
Definition
- Participants must be protected from harm (physical and psychological)
- participants’ privacy must be protected
- participants’ consent should be obtained
- participants should be debriefed following the study
Term
Statistics
Definition
a borad range of techniques and procedures for gathering, organizing, analyzing, and displaying data
Term
Data
Definition
something that can be expressed in numbers
Term
Two main types of statistics
Definition
descriptive and inferential statistics
Term
descriptive statistics
Definition
used to describe sets of numbers and their general characteristics (e.g. mean, standard deviation) - we are concerned with this type of statistics in RDA I
Term
Inferential statistics
Definition
used to make inferences about a population from a sample used (e.g. t-test, ANOVA)
Term
a statistic
Definition
a numerical value computed from a sample of scores
Term
parameter
Definition
a numerical value computed from a population of scores
Term
Qualitative Variables
Definition
a variable with numerical values that represent different categories, for which doing math does not make sense
aka categorical variables (1=blue eyes, 2=brown eyes, 3=green eyes)
Term
You can do math on ______ or ______ variables.
Definition
nominal or ordinal
Term
Quantitative variables
Definition
a variable with numerical values that represent an amount (or quantity) of the variable, for which doing math makes sense (e.g., scores on a spelling test)
Term
Discrete variables
Definition
Can only take on certain values (no decimals allowed). They can be negative as long as they are whole....no fractions, or decimals places

ex: number of people at a party
Term
Discrete variables an be ____, _____ or _____.
Definition
nominal, ordinal or qualitative
Term
Continuous variables
Definition
can take on an infinitely large number of possible values (decimals permitted)
ex: weights and heights
Term
Frequency distribution
Definition
a table that summarizes the data by indicating the values and the variable can tag on along with the frequency with which each value occurred.
Term
Bar graph
Definition
a figure used to present data for a discrete variable...space is left in between the bars to show that the values are discrete
Term
In a bar graph, do ordinal variables such as (S, M, L) appear on the x or y axis
Definition
x
Term
histogram
Definition
a figure used to present data for a continuous variable. No space is left between the bars.
Term
a histogram deals with _____ or ____ data
Definition
interval or ratio
Term
in a histogram frequency is plotted on the ___ axis and scores are plotted on the __ axis
Definition
y, x
Term
Frequency Polygon
Definition
a figure formed by joining the points centred above each score and at a height corresponding to the frequency of that score
Term
Measures of central tendency (3)
Definition
Mean, Median, Mode
Term
Mean
Definition
mathematical average


X=Ex/N sample mean
Mu= Ex/N population mean
Ex- sum of all data values
N- number of data items in population
N- number of data items in the sample
Mu
Parameters are usually simplified by lower case Greek letters.
Term
This is the easiest measure, it is defined by a mathematical formula. A disadvantage is susceptible to outliers
Definition
the mean
Term
outliers
Definition
a numerical value that is distinctly different from the rest of the data (e.g. extreme high or low value)
Term
Median
Definition
the midpoint in a set of scores whn the scores are arranged in order from lowest to highest (or highest to lowest)
Term
Mode
Definition
the most frequently occurring score (if there is one) in the distribution....
Term
Bimodal
Definition
a distribution of scores with two modes
Term
multimodal
Definition
a distribution with more than two modes
Term
Positively skewed scores
Definition
ex: test scores on a midterm...if it was too hard most people will have low scores creating a hump at the beginning
Term
negatively skewed scores
Definition
hump at the end...most people are getting high scores
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