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Pysch 1 Midterm 1
Psych 1 Midterm 1
301
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
10/07/2009

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Term
Anecdotal Evidence
Definition
Testimonials. Unreliable.
Term
Report Bias
Definition
Tendency for some observations to be reported and others not.
Term
File-Drawer Problem
Definition
Studies w/ encouraging results are often published.
Term
Confirmation Bias
Definition
People like results which support their hypothesis more.
Term
Demand characteristics
Definition
If subjects sense one response is desirable, they'll exhibit that response.
Term
Double-Blind
Definition
Neither experimenters nor participants know who is in control group and who is in experimental.
Term
Counfounds
Definition
uncontrolled factors that could influence comparison btwn experimental and control.
Term
Internal validity
Definition
Only internally valid if measures desired variable.
Term
Within-Subject Comparisons
Definition
Compare same subject in different settings. Problems bc of memory and adjustment.
Term
Observational studies
Definition
No manipulation, only observation.
Term
Correlational studies
Definition
Studies relationship btwn. independent and dependent variable.
Term
3rd variable Problem
Definition
When a 3rd variable could affect both independent and dependent vars. -->Correlation doesn't imply causation.
Term
Case Studies
Definition
Investigators observe and describe an individual.
Term
External Validity
Definition
sample must represent population.
Term
Informed Consent
Definition
Subject must know about experiement and consent to taking part. Can create difficulties in running experiment.
Term
Debriefing
Definition
Experimenter must reveal all manipulation to subject after experiment.
Term
Clever Hans
Definition
Horse who could count. But could only do so because of some other visual clues. Blinded hans and hans got questions wrong.
Term
Goals of Science
Definition
Description, Explanation, Prediction, Control
Term
Key features of experiment
Definition
manipulation, measurement, randomization, control of extraneous factors
Term
Reliability
Definition
Degree of consistency with which a test measures a trait or attribute. If trait is constant, test will produce same score every time.
Term
Validity
Definition
Extent to which a test measures what it's meant to measure.
Term
Why do we need descriptive and correlational approaches
Definition
We can't always manipulate the var.
Term
Strengths and Weaknesses Descriptive
Definition
Specific, naturalistic. but not generalizable.
Term
Strengths and Weaknesses Correlational
Definition
Widely applicable, naturalistic. No causation though.
Term
strengths and weaknesses experimental
Definition
Can infer causation. But, artificial, can be unethical, not always possible.
Term
Proximate Cause
Definition
What is immediate cause (of behavior)?
Term
Ultimate Explanations
Definition
What is long-term cause (of behavior)?
Term
Darwin's Observations
Definition
Variation (in fossils too), heredity, competition, differences in reproductive success.
Term
Genotype
Definition
Combination of Genes
Term
Phenotype
Definition
Observable Properties
Term
Allele
Definition
Variation w/in gene
Term
Evolution
Definition
Process of change in allele frequency over time
Term
Sociobiology
Definition
Evolutionary analysis of human behavior
Term
Pleiotropy
Definition
One gene affects many traits
Term
Polygenicity
Definition
Many genes affect one trait.
Term
Ethology
Definition
Science focused on observing and characterizing animal behavior.
Term
Fixed Action Patterns
Definition
Elicited by specific stimuli, all or nothing, performed by all members of species of appropriate age, condition.
Term
Functionalism
Definition
William James. How do mental processes serve organism.
Term
Why are women choosier than men?
Definition
Women have a higher reproductive burden than men.
Term
How was women's pickiness tested?
Definition
2-tail t-test with number of men/women of interest in speed dating thing.
Term
Altruism
Definition
Classical Fitness (save yourself) vs. inclusive fitness (save your genes)
Term
Naturalistic Fallacy
Definition
Drawing conclusion about how things ought to be based on how things are.
Term
genome
Definition
catalog of all our genes
Term
Homeostasis
Definition
process that maintains good internal state of body
Term
Endotherms
Definition
Maintain stable body temps
Term
Ectotherms
Definition
Have variable body temps
Term
Automatic Nervous System (ANS)
Definition
system of nerves sends control to glands and smooth muscles of internal organs and blood vessels. Two parts, sympathetic branch and parasympathetic branch.
Term
Sympathetic Branch
Definition
Part of ANS. Revs up bodily activities for vigorous action.
Term
Parasympathetic branch
Definition
Restores body's activities to normal after action.
Term
Hypothalamus
Definition
Pea-sized brain region at base of forebrain. Governs ANS among other things.
Term
How do we know to stop eating?
Definition
liver detects glucose being turned into glycogen, and tells animals to stop eating. Fat cells, when full, secrete lepton, indicating no need to eat more.
Term
Potentiation
Definition
Some clues potentiate other clues, making them more salient and persuasive.
Term
Dual-Center theory
Definition
One part of hypothalamus is "go center" and other is "stop center."
Term
Comparative Method
Definition
studying humans and non-humans.
Term
Agnosia
Definition
Inability to recognize sensory stimuli, not due to a problem in sensory systems.
Term
Prosopagnosia
Definition
Inability to recognize familiar faces, not due to problems in sensory systems.
Term
Dorsal Superior
Definition
Top part of brain.
Term
Ventral Inferior
Definition
Bottom of brain.
Term
Caudal Posterior
Definition
Back Part of Brain.
Term
Rostral Anterior
Definition
Front Part of Brain.
Term
Saggital Slice Oreintation
Definition
Bilateral
Term
Coronal Slice Orientation
Definition
Cut face off.
Term
Axial
Definition
cut horizontally, cut top of head off.
Term
Medulla
Definition
Connects spinal cord to brain. Controls breathing, blood pressure, heart rate, and some reflexes.
Term
Pons
Definition
Bridge where fibers cross brain. Above medulla. Controls attentiveness and helps govern sleeping and dreaming.
Term
Neuroscience
Definition
Tries to understand nature, functions, and origins of nervous system.
Term
Neurons
Definition
Individual Cells that act as main info. processors of nervous system.
Term
Clinical Observation
Definition
1st technique used to study brain. Links brain abnormality w/ observable changes in behavior.
Term
Neuropsychology
Definition
Understands brain function by closely examining individuals who have suffered brain damage.
Term
Lesioned
Definition
destroyed in place.
Term
Transecting
Definition
Cutting pathways to a piece of tissue, isolating it.
Term
Transcranial Magnetic stimulation (TMS)
Definition
Involves creation of series of strong magnetic pulses at location on scalp. Simulates brain dysfunction in region.
Term
CT Scan
Definition
neuroimaging technique. Involves series of x-rays of brain and then puts them together.
Term
MRI
Definition
neuroimaging technique. Makes atoms in brain tissue give off em energy, recoreded by detectors and assembles into 3-d rep. of brain.
Term
EEG
Definition
neuroimaging technique. electroencephalography. Detects electrical currents in brain by affixing metal electrodes to head. Can detect activity, but not precisely.
Term
PET
Definition
neuroimaging technique. positron emission tomography. Participant injected w/ radioactive sugar resembling glucose. More active brain cells soak up more sugar and send stronger signals.
Term
fMRI
Definition
functional MRI. Adapts MRI procedures to detect fast-changing aspects of brain physiology w/o radioactivity.
Term
Double dissaciation
Definition
If X can be disrupted while sparing Y, and Y can be disrupted while sparin X, then the two are controlled by distinct brain mechanisms.
Term
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Definition
Includes Brain and spinal cord.
Term
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Definition
Nerves in body. Includes efferent nerves and afferent nerves (carry signals from/to CNS to/from Body respectively).
Term
Efferent Nerves
Definition
Carry signals from CNS to body.
Term
Afferent Nerves
Definition
Carry signals from body to CNS
Term
Cranial Nerves
Definition
12 pairs of nerves that don't go through spinal cord. Control movements of head, neck, face functions.
Term
Somatic Division
Definition
Includes nerves that control skeletal muscles. part of PNS.
Term
Automatic Nervous system
Definition
Part of PNS. Includes efferent nerves that regulate body organs and afferent nerves that bring CNS info about these organs.
Term
hindbrain
Definition
sits directly on top of spinal cord and includes structures for controlling life functions.
Term
midbrain
Definition
sits on top of hindbrain. Coordinates movement and relays info from senses.
Term
forebrain
Definition
largest Part. Ability to use language, beliefs, memories, coping styles, emotional reactions.
Term
cerebellum
Definition
largest part of hindbrain. Movement, balance, spatial reasoning.
Term
Cortex
Definition
Outer surface of forebrain. Lots of tissue because it is crumpled
Term
convolutions
Definition
wrinkles in cortex
Term
longitudinal fissure
Definition
longest valley btwn. wrinkles. divides brain into left and right cerebral hemispheres.
Term
Frontal Lobes
Definition
from front of brain, right behind forehead. divided by central fissure from parietal lobes.
Term
Parietal Lobes
Definition
Topmost part of brain.
Term
Temporal Lobes
Definition
Below Frontal Lobes. Lateral fissure separates from frontla lobes.
Term
Parietal Lobes
Definition
topmost part of brain. Separated from frontal lobes by central fissure.
Term
Occipital Lobes
Definition
At back of brain.
Term
Thalamus
Definition
Brain region that acts as relay station for all info. going to brain.
Term
hypothalamus
Definition
under thalamus. Controls motivated behaviors like eating, drinking, and sex.
Term
Limbic System
Definition
Includes hippocampus and amygdala
Term
Lateralization
Definition
Brain is symmetrical around midline, so hippocampi on both sides, cortices on both sides, etc. Assymetry btwn haves called LATERALIZATION
Term
Commissures
Definition
Thick bundles of fiber that carry info back and forth btwn halves. Thickest is Corpus callossum
Term
Left vs. right side of brain
Definition
Left has languagee skills and inference skills. Right has spatial skill and facial recognition.
Term
Primary sensory projection areas
Definition
receiving stations for info. arriving from sensory organs.
Term
Primary motor projection areas.
Definition
Departure point for signals that enter lower brain and spinal cord, stimulating, muscle movement.
Term
Contralateral Control
Definition
Stimulating left side of brain --> motion on right side of body and vice-versa
Term
Primary Somatosensory Area
Definition
Directly behind primary motor area, in parietal lobe (motor area is in frontal lobe). Receiving area for sensory info from skin senses. each part of body sends signal to certain part of area. Disproportionate, w/ most sensitive parts taking up most space. Also contralateral.
Term
Visual Primary projection Area
Definition
in occipital lobe.
Term
Auditory primary projection area
Definition
in Temporal Lobe.
Term
Aproxias
Definition
can be caused by lesion in cortex of frontal lobe. disturbancedi n initiation or organization of voluntary action. might come from disconnection btwn. primary and nonmprimary areaas.
Term
Neglect Syndrome
Definition
Patient systematically neglects one side of body/ vision field.
Term
Aphasias
Definition
Lesions in cortex that lead to disruptions in production or comprehension of speech
Term
Non-fluent aphasias
Definition
involve production of speech and involve region of left frontal lobe called Broca's area
Term
fluent aphasias
Definition
patient can talk but can't understand what's said to them. Associated w/ wernicke's area.
Term
prefrontal area
Definition
frontmost part of fronatl lobe. Gives us inhibition.
Term
Ganvlia
Definition
Clumps of neurons that each control individual mvmts. Found in complex invertebrates. Dominant ganglia found in head. to send messages, needed more neural machinery.
Term
Nervous System Development
Definition
after egg's fertilized, egg genes trigger rapid cell reproduction. Chem signals make cells differentiate. Called neurogenesis. brain starts to develop very early. IN early gestation no distinction btwn. neurons and glia, but they slowly migrate to right place in brain.
Term
3 parts of neuron
Definition
dendrites, cell body (soma), axon
Term
dendrites
Definition
input side of neuron. Receive signals.
Term
Axon
Definition
Output side of neurons. sends neural impulses to other neurons. Extends from cell body in wispy thread and forks into axonal branches
Term
motoneuron
Definition
provides pathway that begins with CNS and transmits nerve impulse to muscle fiber. carries efferent signal.
Term
Sensory Neurons
Definition
Neurons that convey impulses from receptors toward rest of nervous sytem.
Term
INterneurons
Definition
Neurons that are interposed between two or more other nurons.
Term
Glia
Definition
Guide migrating neurons tto destinations and influence what connections are made btwn neurons.
Term
Myelin
Definition
Glial cells that increase speed at which neurons can communicate. coats and wraps around axons. Uncoated gaps (nodes of Ranvier) are crucial in speeding up nerve impulses travelling along axons.
Term
White matter
Definition
myelinated axons traversing long distances
Term
Gray matter
Definition
cell bodies, dendrites, and unmylinated axons and interneurons.
Term
Resting pptential
Definition
small negative voltage from charge of resting axon
Term
excitation threshold
Definition
if voltage difference across membrane is reduced to lower than this, neuron reverses itself, then returns to normal. Destabilization-restabilization sequence called ACTION POTENTIAL.
Term
Ion channels
Definition
let certain ions pass through cell membrane but block others.
Term
ion pumps
Definition
such ions in or push them out.
Term
Action Potential and Ions
Definition
Na+ mostly outside neuron and K+ mostly inside. When membrane is stable, Na+ pumped to outside and kept there, while K_free to enter or leave. Accounts for some of some of resting potential. When membrane is sufficiently excited (excitation threshold), ion channels open and NA+ floods neuron, then membrane restores itself to normal.
Term
Propogation
Definition
Temporarioy positive voltage along axon triggers domino effect of opening ion channels along axon. If myelinated, destabilization process skips from node to node, making it much faster.
Term
Multiple Sclerosis
Definition
caused by melin breaking down.
Term
All-or-none law
Definition
If stimulus is strong enough to destabilize membrane, it doesn't matter if it's stronger.
Term
Synaps
Definition
Along with neurons that form it, gap btwn. two neurons
Term
Temporal Summation
Definition
Process in which effects of stimulation accumulate over time.
Term
Spatial Summation
Definition
Easier to elicit response if stimulated in multiple places at once rather than at one place.
Term
Recpiprocal inhibition
Definition
Excitement of each constituent of a pair, causing inhibition of the other.
Term
Presynaptic neuron
Definition
Cell that sends
Term
Synaptic vesicles
Definition
Sacs in pre-synaptic neurons that have nuerotransmitters inside.
Term
Neurotransmission Process
Definition
Presynaptic neuron fires and vesicles eject nts across synaptic gap. NTs cross gap and impinge on postsynaptic membrane. once across, nts activate specialized mlecular receptors, opening ion channels, lowering voltage difference if excitatory. Or if inhibitory, increases voltage diff.
Term
Neurotransmission Destructiion
Definition
Sometimes destroyed by chemical enzymes. Also can be reused in synaptic reuptake.
Term
Synaptic reuptake
Definition
NTS ejected from post-S receptors, vacuumed by molecular pumps, and repackaged. Some cases, so much bombardment that cleanup system is overwhelmed --> temporal summation
Term
Acetylcoline
Definition
Makes muscles contract
Term
serotonin
Definition
sleep, mood, and arousal.
Term
GABA
Definition
inhibitory NT in CNS
Term
Lock and Key model
Definition
NTs will only affect post-S membrane if NT's shape fits synaptic receptor molecules. Must also be able to turn it. some NTs only work when other NTS have 'opened their locks.'
Term
Electrical synapses
Definition
some neurons involved in high-speed actions might not use NTs and just have narrow electrical synapses.
Term
Retina
Definition
light-sensitive area at rear of each eyeball. Proximal stimulus.
Term
Nativism
Definition
Our perception of things is based on us effectively categorizing data.
Term
Psychophysics
Definition
charting of relationship btwn. physical stimuli and psychological experiences.
Term
Difference Threshold
Definition
smallest stimulus change that observer can reliably detect
Term
Just-noticeable difference (JND)
Definition
Psychological entity that's result of minimal stimulus change.
Term
Weber's Law
Definition
Size of difference threshold is constant fraction of stimulus we are comparing to.
deltaI/I =c, where deltaI is amount that must be added to stimulus to produce noticeable increase, and I is physical intensity of stimulus
Term
Senisitivity
Definition
People may differ in how well/often they perceive things
Term
False Alarm
Definition
Stimulus absent, but subject says it's present
Term
Hit
Definition
Stimulus present, and subject says 'yes'
Term
Miss
Definition
stimulus present, and subject says 'no.'
Term
Correct Negative
Definition
Stimulus absent, and subject says 'no.'
Term
Signal Detection Theory
Definition
If individuals differ in sensitivity, they'll differ in proportions of correct and incorrect responses. If differ in criteria for responding, they'll differ in yes/no proportions.
Term
Detection Threshold
Definition
What's minimal stimulus that can be detected at all.
Term
Kinesthesis
Definition
Collective term for info. that comes from repectors in muscles, tendons, and joints that tells us about our movements and orientation of our body in space.
Term
Vestibular sense
Definition
Receptors in inner cavity in ear, signal movements of head.
Term
Skin senses
Definition
Pressure, warmth, cold, pain
Term
Transduction
Definition
Common step to all senses, when physical stimulus is converted into neural .
Term
Sensory coding
Definition
A "code" is a set of rules through which info is transferred from one format to another.
Term
Psychological Intensity causes
Definition
Coded by firing more neurons more frequently
Term
sensory quality
Definition
difference in neural code telling us we see the flower instead of touching it or smelling it. matters which nerve is being stimulated.
Term
Doctrine of specific nerve energies
Definition
Differences in sensory quality are caused by different nervous structures stimuli excite.
Term
Specificity Theory
Definition
Different sensory qualities are signalled by differnet neurons
Term
Pattern Theory
Definition
different sensory qualities are caused by which neurons are firing more and which less at any given moment.
Term
Sound Waves (cause)
Definition
Caused by movement agitating our particles. Louder as amplitude increases. Wide range, so scientists measure with logarithmic scale (+10db = x2 loudness). Frequency <-> Pitch.
Term
Cochlea
Definition
deep w/in ear, receptors for hearing.
Term
outer ear
Definition
collects sound waves from air and directs them toward eardrum (membrane at end of auditory canal). ear drum vibrates, and vibrations are transmitted to oval window (membrane that separates inner ear from outer ear). Accomplished by auditory ossicles. vibration gives rise to waves in fluid that fills cochlea. cochlea are receptors, cylce over.
Term
Basilar membrane
Definition
divides cochlea into upper and lower.
Term
Hair cells
Definition
Actual auditory receptors, lodged btwn. basilar membrane and membranes above it.
Term
Hearing process
Definition
motion of oval window -> Pressure changes in cochlear fluid -> vibrations in basilar membrane -> deformations bend hair cells -> neural response.
Term
Hermann von Helmholtz place theory
Definition
Nervous system able to identify pitch by tracking where movement is greatest along basilar membrane.
Term
Frequency Theory
Definition
Lower pitches make neuron fire less frequently.
Term
Further processing of auditory info
Definition
Neurons carry signals from cochlea to midbrain, then to thalamus, then to temporal cortex, main area for hearing. Localization based on comparison btwn. ears. neurons have preferred pitch, frequency of sound to which neuron fires more often than for other pitches. We identify pitch by pattern code. Nuerons with similar preferred pitches are close to each other.
Term
Tonotonic Map
Definition
map organized according to tone.
Term
Photoreceptors
Definition
Detect light in vertebrates. on retina -- layer of tissue lining back of eyeball. Cornea and lens focus incoming light. Iris contracts or dilates as amount of illumination changes.
Term
Visual Reception
Definition
Retina contains two kinds receptor cells, rods and cones. cones plentiful in fovea; small circular region at center of retina, then less frequent. Rods are opposite. Receptors stimulate bipolar cells, which excite gangliion cells. Ganglion cells collect info. from all over retina, and then axons converge to form optic nerve. Optic nerve carries info to lateral geniculate nucleus, in thalamus, and then to occipital cortex.
Term
Duplex theory of vision
Definition
rods handle low light intensities and lead to achromatic sensations. Cones are opposites.
Term
Photopigment
Definition
Chemical inside photoreceptor that is sensitive to light. Allows transduction of light to chemical signal. rods and cones contain different photopigments.
Term
Importance of Change in Vision
Definition
Photorecpetors are sensitive to differences, and fire more strongly in response to changes in stimulation.
Term
Brightness Contrast
Definition
Same shade of grey looks brighter against black background than white background. Visual system amplifies boundaries.
Term
Mach Bands
Definition
Uniform strips of gray in ascending brightness. Perceived that each strip goes from darker to lighter from left to right.
Term
Lateral Inhibition
Definition
Activity in one region inhibits response in adjacent regions. Because cells on edge are only laterally inhibited on one side, we see edges clearly. Or, in dark patches, inhibited more, so edges are clearer.
Term
hue
Definition
attribute that distinguishes blue from green and red. varies w/ wavelength.
Term
brightness
Definition
dimension of color that differentiates black from white
Term
achromatic
Definition
Has no hue. Brightness is also applicable to chromatic colors
Term
Saturation
Definition
Purity of a color
Term
Young-Helmholtz Theory
Definition
red activates long-wavelength preferring receptors, green medium, and blue short.
Term
simultaneous color contrast
Definition
chromatic counterpart of brightness contrast. Any chromatic color in visual field tends to induce complementary color in adjoinng areas (If we stare at color for some time and then look at white, we see negative afterimage)
Term
Opponent-Process Theory
Definition
Output from cones is recoded into pairs of colors. Red v. Green, Blue v. yellow, etc.
Term
Visual Agnosia
Definition
can't perceive shapes.
Term
Feature Detectors
Definition
Fire in response to line or edge of particular orientation, but indifferent to location w/in visual field.
Term
Binocular Disparity
Definition
Difference btwn. two eyes' views
Term
Pictorial Cues
Definition
Monocular distance cues that can create impression of depth, even on flat surface.
Term
Interposition
Definition
Blocking of our view of one object by another object.
Term
Linear Perspective and Relative size
Definition
Distant objects produce smaller retinal image than nearby objects of same size.
Term
Texture Gradients
Definition
e.g. cobblestones, sand...can show spatial layout of vast surfaces.
Term
Motion Parallax
Definition
Entire pattern of motion in retina provides this clue. When we move our heads, pts. closer to us than our focus move in opposite direction, pts. further away move in same direction.
Term
Optic Flow
Definition
As we move toward/away from object, entire visual field changes, giving us distance cue
Term
Apparent movement
Definition
If a light is turned on in one place, then turned off, and then a light is turned on in another place, we interpret the light to have moved.
Term
Direction Specific Cells
Definition
fire if stimulus moves across receptive field in specific direction. can act as motion detectors.
Term
Eye Movements
Definition
Our nervous system compensates for retinal displacement. tested by paralyzing eye movement. Found to be true.
Term
Induced Motion
Definition
If luminous dot is put in frame, and we see frame move, we perceive dot to have moved.
Term
Visual Search Task
Definition
subjects can find circle in a field of v's very easily
Term
Gestalt Psychology
Definition
School of psychology that believes our mind is based on idea that whole form is sum of its parts
Term
Perceptual Parsing
Definition
We organize whole into its constituent parts.
Term
Good continuation
Definition
preference for contours that continue smoothly along original course.
Term
Subjective Contours
Definition
Good continuation applies even if there's a gap in the contour.
Term
Classical Approach to Perception
Definition
We can seek general way to describe broad characteristics of perception processes.
Term
neuroscience approach to perception
Definition
How processes of perception are realized w/in nervous system.
Term
Classical Approach to Perception
Definition
We add extra layer of perception to what stimulus provides.
Term
Perceptual Constancy
Definition
We manage to distinguish changes in proximal stimulus caused by our viewing position from those caused by change in distal stimulus.
Term
Size Constancy
Definition
Viewing sizes correctly despite changes in viewing distance.
Term
Shape Constancy
Definition
We can account for change in viewing angle.
Term
Position Constancy
Definition
Perceiving objects as having unchanging position despite changes in proximal stimulus (we subtract retinal change)
Term
Higher-Order Invariants
Definition
relevant information involves relationship btwn size (shape) of retinal image and other attributes of stimulus
Term
Unconscious inference
Definition
Hermann Von Helmholtz. Simple inverse relationship between distance and retinal image size. We do subconscious multiplication of retinal size and distance to find actual size of stimulus object, called "unconscious inference."
Term
Process-Model Approach
Definition
Hierarchical network of feature detectors. models of this network called featur nets. can be bottom-driven=data driven, or top-driven=knowledge driven.
Term
Priming Effects
Definition
Part of knowledge-driven perception processes. Tell subject they'll see something edible and recognition of picture of apple is faster.
Term
Simultaneous Multiple-Constraint satisfaction
Definition
Data-driven and knowledge-driven perception work together in simultaneous multiple-constraint satisfaction. Features detected by network and perceivers' expectations both provide constraints.
Term
Sensory Memory
Definition
Processing takes time, and we shift our eyes. But nerual response to stimuli only tapers off gradually when we shift our view.
Term
Geons
Definition
30 geometric components that are building blocks of all shapes of all objects.
Term
Neuroscience Approach to Perception
Definition
neurons are specialized, even at ganglion stage of vision.
Term
Parvo Cells
Definition
Smaller ganglion cells, cover retina, sensitive to color differences, and perceive color/form.
Term
Magno cells
Definition
larger, in periphery areas, colorblind but perceive brightness, detect motion and perceive death.
Term
Parallel processing in visual cortex
Definition
Visual system relies on different cells each specializing in particular kind of analysis. Work simultaneously. Allows for speed and comparison. Brain area analyzing features of pattern work at same time as brain areas analyzing pattern's large scale configuration.
Term
"What System"
Definition
Pathway that carries info. from visual cortex to temporal cortex. DOes identification.
Term
"Where System"
Definition
Pathway to parietal cortex. Tells us where object is
Term
Binding Problem
Definition
How do we re-integrate separated visual info? Speculation that it's done when neurons fire at same rate.
Term
Orienting
Definition
We turn head and eyes to focus on seomething. Attention helps solve binding problem. Synthesis occurs when we focus on info.
Term
Illusory Conjunctions
Definition
False ideas about how characteristics of things are bundled together.
Term
Learning Theorists
Definition
Believe that all learning can be described by simple associations, built layer upon layer.
Term
Habituation
Definition
decline in organism's response to stimulus once stimulus has become familiar.
Term
Dishabituation
Definition
Increase in responsiveness caused by presentation of something novel.
Term
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
Definition
US (food) --> UR (saliva). CS(bell) prsented with US(food) --> UR (saliva). Then CS (bell) --> CR (saliva).
Term
second-order conditioning
Definition
using CS and CR to create another CS
Term
Extinction
Definition
CS-US links undergo extinction, when CS is repeatedly presented w/o US
Term
Reconditioning
Definition
After extinction, the presentation of further learning trials. Subjects learn faster than they did initially.
Term
Spontaneous recovery
Definition
Afer extinction, if there's rest period, and CS is presented, it will often elicit CR even though relationship was extinguished earlier
Term
stimulus generalization
Definition
subjects respond w/ CR to range of stimuli, so long as stimuli are sufficiently similar to CS
Term
Generalization Gradient
Definition
Pattern that greater diff. btwn. new stimulus and CS, weaker CR.
Term
Discrimination
Definition
We can be conditioned to differentiate btwn two similar stimuli (CS+ and CS-. CS+ is paired with US, CS- is not). IN these cases, CS- is inhibitor, inhibiting response elicited by CS+ in that response to CS- is opposite of response to CS+, not just neutral).
Term
CS as signal
Definition
CS most effective when presented before US, but not too much before. Subject should be able to anticipate US, and therefore UR.
Term
Temporal Contiguity
Definition
Mere fact that CS and US occur together in time is not enough. We have to eliminate all other stimuli. We need consistency. we notice if US is contingent on CS, more likely to occur in presence than absence.
Term
Absence of Contingency (w/ shock)
Definition
If prob. of shock following tone is same as prob. of no shock, animals fell fear all the time.
Term
Role of surprise
Definition
If US was not expected but arrives anyhow, strengthening of association. If US expected, but doesn't arrive, weakening of association.
Term
Blocking effect
Definition
Sometimes subject doesn't repsond to CS2 because association with CS1 is too strong and CS2 is redundant.
Term
Conditioned emotional response
Definition
We see that fear disrupts other activities. ex. Rat presses lever for food, light comes on, and then rat is shocked. Measure fear by time rat takes to stop pressing lever. Response Suppression.
Term
Compensatory Response (diabetic)
Definition
INsulin lowers blood sugar, but diabetics blood sugar will rise when they see a needle, due to homeostasis
Term
Instrumental Conditioning
Definition
Allows us to account for voluntary actions.
Term
Thorndike Box
Definition
edward thorndike. Hungry cat put in box that it could only open by performing some simple action. outside puzzle box, rewarded w/ food. 1st. time, took long time, then shorter and shorter. Demonstrating learning curve.
Term
The Law of Effect
Definition
If response is followed by a reward, it will be strengthened.
Term
Skinner box
Definition
B.F. Skinner. Sharp distinction btwn. claassical and instrumental conditioning. In instrumental, reactions are emitted from within.
Term
Operants
Definition
Operate on environment to bring about change and consequences
Term
skinner box
Definition
rat presses lever or pigeon presses lit key to gain reward, we record response rate.
Term
Reinforcer
Definition
reward in instrumental conditioning. Could be presentation of good or removal of bad.
Term
Discriminative stimuli
Definition
Role external stimuli play in instrumental conditioning. ex. pigeon taught to hop on platform to get grain. Grain only present when green light on, not red light. Green/Red lights are discriminative stimuli (S+ and S-)
Term
Shaping
Definition
Way to get subjects to do things tehy wouldn't normally do. One way is by successive approximation -- rewards in steps until we reach our goal.
Term
Primary reinforcers
Definition
Have biological significance. Includes food, water...
Term
Conditioned reinforcers
Definition
Intrinsically neutral, but act as reinforcers due to experience of animal.
Term
Behavioral Contrast
Definition
effectiveness of reinforcer will depend on what other rewards are available.
Term
Intrinsic motivation
Definition
Nursery Kids like to draw because they enjoy it. But, if given reward for drawing and then reward is taken away, kids don't want to draw anymore.
Term
Partial reinforcement
Definition
We are only rewarded some of the time
Term
Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule
Definition
ex. every 3 times pigeon pecks lit up key, gets grain.
Term
Latent Learning
Definition
learning that takes place w/o change in behavior (no reward).
Term
Act-Outcome Representation
Definition
Knowledge abou specific relationships btwn. actions and their outcomes. ex. rats pull chain for food, press lever for sugar water. But, if choose water, injected with bad-tasting/toxin. Start pulling chain more often.
Term
Contingency in Instrumental learning
Definition
response needs to be predictive of reward. ex. infants who activate mobile by shaking their head are much more interested in mobile than infants who have mobile activated for them.
Term
learned helplessness
Definition
Acquired sense that one's lost control over environment. Give up trying.
Term
Seligman and Dogs
Definition
Two groups of dogs in hammocks. Both shocked. one group can stop shock for both gruops, other group can't do anything. Then moved to box. Had to climb wall to avoid shock. Group w/ control learned way faster. Other group gave up and took shocks. similar to depression in humans.
Term
Biological constraints
Definition
species are pre-dsposed to form some associations.
Term
Learned Taste Aversions
Definition
When we try a food and it makes us sick, we don't want to eat the food again.
Term
One Trial Learning
Definition
When it takes us only one CS-US pairing to learn something.
Term
Neural Plasticity
Definition
Capacity for neurons to change way they function as consequence of experience. 1) More NTS transmitted 2) more sensitive post-S nuerons 3) New synapses
Term
Long-term Potentiation/Depression
Definition
responsiveness of postsynaptic neuron increases/decreases. LTP produced when one neuron stimulates another repeatedly.
Term
Activity Dependence (potentiation)
Definition
Spread of potentiation is activity dependent. neuron will only be potentiated toward active nuerons. New synapses formed by growth of DENDRITIC SPINES.
Term
Parts of Hindbrain
Definition
Medulla, Cerebellum, Pons
Term
Parts of Limbic System
Definition
Amygdala, Thalamus, Hypothalamus,Hippocampus
Term
Frontal Lobe function
Definition
motor, cognition, problem solving, decision-making, personality, language (broca's area)
Term
Parietal lobe Function
Definition
Somatosensory cortex, Touch, pressure, spatial awareness, temperature, pain. Fine sensation (judgment of texture, weight, size, shape)
Term
Temporal Lobe Function
Definition
Smell, hearing, Memory, Language
Term
Occipital
Definition
Vision
Term
Brodmann's Areas
Definition
50 cytoarchitecutral areas defined according to size, cell density, layers, and density of myelinated axons
Term
Body Integrity Identity Disorder
Definition
Feels like body part's not yours. Desire to amputate it. linked to somatosensory dysfunction.
Term
Arcuate Fasciculus
Definition
bundle of fibers connecting Broca's and Wernicke's areas
Term
Single-Cell Electrophysiology
Definition
Measuring electrical activity in single neuron.
Term
Amines
Definition
Type of NT. Catecholamines. Seratonin
Term
Amino Acids
Definition
Type of NT. Excitatory (Glutamate) or Inhibitory (GABA)
Term
Dopamine
Definition
Controls movement, mood, motivation, reward, transmission low in Parkinson's.
Term
Norepinehrine
Definition
Stress responses, influences alertness, arousal, and reward. Anxiety and mood disorders. Anti-depressant.
Term
Seretonin
Definition
Regulates mood, body temp. Depression, impulsive behavior, and aggression
Term
Objectivist view of Perception
Definition
Perception creates accurate internal rep. of external world.
Term
Subjectivist View of Perception
Definition
Perception imposes organization on world. Perception of organized world is all in your head.
Term
Synthetic view of Perception
Definition
HOw accurately we percieve world depends on limitations of nervous system and how accurately we need to perceive it.
Term
Reqs for Observational Learning
Definition
Attend to behavior, encode symbolically, motor reproduction, motivation.
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