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Psychology Final Exam
Study Guide
96
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
04/26/2011

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

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Term
Operational definitions
Definition
o A statement of the procedures used to define research variables.
o Example: Human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.
Term
Hypothesis
Definition
o A testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory.
Term
Correlation- positive versus negative
Definition
o when one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.
o R=+0.37
o R=correlation coefficient- is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.
o +=indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative)
o 0.37=indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00)
o Correlation does not mean causation!!
Term
Experimental design
Definition
o is the design of all information-gathering exercises where variation is present, whether under the full control of the experimenter or not
Term
Longitudinal versus cross-sectional designs
Definition
o Cross-sectional studies (also known as Cross-sectional analysis) form a class of research methods that involve observation of some subset of a population of items all at the same time, in which, groups can be compared at different ages with respect of independent variables, such as IQ and memory.
o A longitudinal study is a correlational research study that involves repeated observations of the same items over long periods of time — often many decades. It is a type of observational study. Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study developmental trends across the life span, and in sociology to study life events throughout lifetimes or generations.
Term
theory
Definition
o an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events.
Term
replication
Definition
consistent resluts on one question or setting. verifies the study as they repeat it with different ppl groups
Term
illusory correlation
Definition
o the perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists.
Term
hindsight bias
Definition
o “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon. After learning the outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted that very outcome.
Term
Critical thinking
Definition
o Critical thinking does not accept arguments and conclusions blindly.
o It examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions
Term
John Locke- Blank Slate
Definition
o Stated that he could take any child from birth and raise them into any type of person he so chose.
 Basically, he felt that nature had nothing to do with psychology. It was all about nurture
Term
What is the psychodynamic perspective?
Definition
o Focus: How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts.
o Sample questions: How can someone’s personality traits and disorders be explained in terms of sexual and aggressive drives or as disguised effects of unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas?
Term
Behaviorist perspective
Definition
o Focus: How we learn observable responses?
o Sample questions: How do we learn to fear particular objects or situations? What is the most effective way to alter our behavior, say to lose weight or quit smoking?
Term
What is the definition of psychology?
Definition
o We define psychology today as the scientific study of behavior (what we do) and mental processes (inner thoughts and feelings).
Term
Nature versus nurture
Definition
o Nurture works on what nature endows.
Term
William Wundt
Definition
o Wundt and psychology’s first graduate students studied the “atoms of the mind” by conducting experiments at Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. This work is considered the birth of psychology as we know it today
Term
William James
Definition
o American philosopher William James wrote an important 1890 psychology textbook. Mary Calkins, James’s student, became the APA’s first female president.
Term
Cognitive neuroscience perspective
Definition
o Focus: How the body and brain enables emotions?
o Sample questions: How are messages transmitted in the body? How is blood chemistry linked with moods and motives?
Term
Cognitive perspective
Definition
o Focus: How we encode, process, store and retrieve information?
o Sample questions: How do we use information in remembering? Reasoning? Problem solving?
Term
Dualism
Definition
o Dualism denotes a state of two parts. The word's origin is the Latin duo, "two" . The term 'dualism' was originally coined to denote co-eternal binary opposition, a meaning that is preserved in metaphysical and philosophical duality discourse but has been diluted in general or common usages.
Term
Anatomy of neurons
Definition
o Cell body: life support center of the neuron
o Dendrites: branching extensions at the cell body. Receive messages from other neurons.
o Axon: long single extension of a neuron, covered with myelin sheath to insulate and speed up messages through neurons.
o Terminal branches of axon: branched endings of an axon that transmit messages to other neurons
Term
Synapses
Definition
o A junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite, or the cell body, of the receiving neuron. This tiny gap is called the synaptic gap or cleft.
Term
Thalamus
Definition
o The brain’s sensory switchboard, located on tip of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
Term
Hippocampus
Definition
o A neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories.
Term
Amygdala
Definition
o Consists of two lima bean-sized neural clusters linked to the emotions of fear and anger
Term
serotonin and SSRIs
Definition
o affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.
o Undersupply liked to depression; Prozac and some other antidepressant drugs rais serotonin levels
Term
brain plasticity
Definition
o refers to the brain’s ability to modify itself after some types of injury or illness.
Term
What are the 4 lobes of the brain?
Definition
o Frontal (forehead); parietal (top to rear); occipital (back); temporal (side)
Term
Heritable traits
Definition
Term
Genome
Definition
o The set of complete instructions for making an organism, containing all the genes in that organism. Thus, the human genome makes us human, and the genome for drosophila makes it a common house fly.
Term
Heritability of personality, temperament, beliefs, physical characteristics, etc
Definition
Term
nature nurture interactions
Definition
Term
Individualism versus collectivism
Definition
o Individualist: if a culture nurtures an individual’s personal identity.
o Collectivist: group identity is favored.
Term
Prenatal hormone effects on brain development
Definition
Term
Genetic differences between males and females
Definition
o Authoritarian: parents impose rules and expect obedience.
o Permissive: parents submit to children’s demands
o Authoritative: parents are demanding but responsive to their children.
Term
Maturation
Definition
o The development of the brain unfolds based on genetic instructions, causing various bodily and mental functions to occur in sequence.
o Sets the basic course of development, while experience adjusts it.
Term
parenting styles
Definition
o Authoritarian: parents impose rules and expect obedience.
o Permissive: parents submit to children’s demands
o Authoritative: parents are demanding but responsive to their children.
Term
What are Erik Erikson's social stages?
Definition
o Infancy (to 1 year). Trust vs. mistrust.
o Toddlerhood (1 to 2). Autonomy vs. shame and doubt.
o Preschooler (3 to 5). Initiative vs. guilt.
o Elementary School (6 years to puberty). Competence vs. inferiority.
o Adolescence (teen years into 20s). Identity vs. role confusion.
o Middle adulthood (20s to early 40s). Intimacy vs. Isolation.
o Middle adulthood (40s to 60s). Generativity vs. stagnation.
o Late adulthood (late 60s and up). Integrity vs. despair.
Term
critical period
Definition
o a time in the early stages of an organism's life during which it displays a heightened sensitivity to certain environmental stimuli, and develops in particular ways due to experiences at this time. If the organism does not receive the appropriate stimulus during this "critical period", it may be difficult, ultimately less successful, or even impossible, to develop some functions later in life.
Term
theory of mind
Definition
o developing the ability to understand another’s mental state
Term
What are Jean Piaget's cognitive stages?
Definition
o Sensorimotor Stage: babies take in the world by looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping. Do not grasp object permanence-objects that are out of sight are also out of mind.
 Piaget believed children in this stage could not think. Recent research does not agree with him.
o Preoperational Stage: 2 years old to 6-7 years old. Too young to perform mental operations.
 Egocentric-they cannot perceive things from another’s point of view.
o Concrete Operational Stage: 6-7 year olds grasp conservation problems and mentally pour liquids back and forth into glasses of different shapes conserving their quantities.
o Formal Operational Stage: about age 12, our reasoning ability expands from concrete thinking to abstract thinking. We can now use symbols and imagined realities to systematically reason
Term
Myelination in adolescents
Definition
o During adolescence, neurons in the frontal cortex grow myelin, which speeds up nerve conduction. The frontal cortex lags behind the limbic system’s development. Hormonal surges and the limbic system may explain occasional teen impulsiveness.
Term
fluid versus crystallized intelligence
Definition
o Fluid: ability to reason speedily. Declines with age.
o Crystalline: accumulated knowledge and skills. Does not decline with age.
Term
social clock
Definition
Term
What is the definition of sensation?
Definition
o Sensations can be defined as the passive process of bringing information from the outside world into the body and to the brain. The process is passive in the sense that we do not have to be consciously engaging in a "sensing" process.
Term
What is the definition of perception?
Definition
o Perception can be defined as the active process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting the information brought to the brain by the senses.
Term
Somatosensory cortex
Definition
Term
Distance cues in vision
Definition
Term
experiencing pain
Definition
Term
sensory adaptation
Definition
o Sensory Adaptation occurs when sensory receptors change their sensitivity to the stimulus. This phenomenon occurs in all senses, with the possible exception of the sense of pain.
Term
Taste aversion learning
Definition
o A type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior. With this technique, temporary conditioned aversion to alcohol has been reported.
Term
classical conditioning
Definition
o Ivan Pavlov/John Watson
o Pavlov-first showed the effects of classical conditioning with dogs… salivating at the sound of a tone. The conditioned stimulus needs to occur a half a second before the unconditioned stimulus for acquisition to occur.
Term
unconditioned stimulus and response
Definition
o unconditioned stimulus  unconditioned response
o Conditioned stimulus + unconditioned stimulus  unconditioned response
o Conditioned stimulus  Conditioned response
Term
conditioned stimulus and response
Definition
o conditioned response=unconditioned response before the conditioning… but different because it is caused by something different.
Term
reinforcers versus punishment
Definition
o Reinforcers: any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
 Primary: an innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink.
 Conditioned: a learned reinforce that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer.
 Immediate: a reinforce that occurs instantly after a behavior… a rat gets a food pellet for a bar press.
 Delayed: a reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a wee.o Punishment: an aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows.
Term
operant conditioning
Definition
o Involves operant behavior… a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.
Term
observational learning
Definition
o Learning by observing or imitating others.
Term
explicit and implicit memory
Definition
o Explicit: declarative
o Implicit: procedural
Term
recognition versus recall
Definition
o Recognition: the person must identify an item amongst other choices. i.e. a multiple choice test.
o Recall: the person must retrieve information using effort. i.e. a fill-in the black recall
Term
the role of encoding in memory
Definition
o must encode in order to remember… forgetting something results from lack of encoding properly.
Term
working memory
Definition
o is the executive and attentional aspect of short-term memory involved in the interim integration, processing, disposal, and retrieval of information. Working memory tasks include the active monitoring or manipulation of information or behaviors.
Term
emotional intelligence
Definition
o the ability to perceive, understand and use emotions. The test of emotional intelligence measures overall emotional intelligence and its four components.
 Perceive emotion.
 Understand emotion.
 Manage emotion.
 Use emotion.
Term
aptitude versus achievement tests
Definition
o Aptitude: necessarily biased in the sense that they are sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural differences.
 Tests based on raw knowledge… IQ tests.
o Tests based on learned knowledge over a period of time
Term
critical periods for language
Definition
Term
selective attention
Definition
o Our conscious awareness processes only a small part of all that we experience. We intuitively make use of the information we are not consciously aware of.
Term
intrinsic motivation
Definition
o Intrinsic motivation comes from rewards inherent to a task or activity itself - the enjoyment of a puzzle or the love of playing.
Term
extrinsic motivation
Definition
o Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the performer. Money is the most obvious example, but coercion and threat of punishment are also common extrinsic motivations.
Term
role of religion and service learning in teen sexuality
Definition
o being actively religious tends to make a person less likely to be involved in extramarital sex.
Term
effect of stress on the body
Definition
o stress is bad for the body…
Term
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Definition
o Abraham Maslow… certain needs have priority over others. First physiological needs, then safety needs, then belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, then last is self-actualization needs.
Term
difference between needs, drives, and incentives
Definition
o definition of drive: an aroused tension state… Drive reduction theory: a drive motivates an organism to satisfy the need.
o NeedDriveDrive-reducing behaviors (Homeostasis)
Term
locus of control
Definition
o Personal control-whether we control the environment or the environment controls us. External locus of control-perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determines our fate. Internal locus of control-perception that we can control our own fate.
Term
What is the role of the amygdala in emotions?
Definition
o it shows the differences in activation during emotions of anger and rage. Left/happy. Right/depressed.
Term
fear and unconscious emotions
Definition
o Psychoanalytic perspective of personality: FREUD. He encountered, as a neurologist, people dealing with nervous disorders=therapy.
o Unconscious : a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories… Freud used free association to tap into the unconscious.
o Id, Ego, & Superego: Id-unconsciously strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, operating n the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification (the devil).
o Ego-functions as the “executive: and mediates the demands of the id and superego (the man).
o Superego-provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations (the angel)
Term
What are criticisms of Freud's theory of personality?
Definition
Term
person centered perspective
Definition
Term
big five personality factors
Definition
o Agreeableness. Neuroticism. Openness. Extraversion. CANOE
Term
learned helplessness
Definition
o When unable to avoid repeated adverse event an animal or human learns helplessness.
Term
What are some mood disorders?
Definition
Term
reliability of the DSM-IV-TR diagnoses
Definition
o Biopsychosocial Approach… assumes that biological, socio-cultural, and psychological factors combine and interact to produce psychological disorders. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) to describe psychological disorders.DSM-IV
Term
Rosenhan study
Definition
o -Study used to show that psychologists and other doctors tend to label their patients and see evidence of mental illness. Said Rosenhan had thoughts grandiose because he kept saying he was a doctor…
Term
positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia
Definition
o Positive symptoms: the presence of inappropriate behaviors (hallucinations, disorganized or delusional talking.)
o Negative symptoms: the absence of appropriate behaviors (expressionless faces, rigid bodies.)
o **flat affect-showing no emotion at all
Term
systematic desensitization
Definition
o Systematic desensitization is a type of behavioral therapy used in the field of psychology to help effectively overcome phobias and other anxiety disorders. More specifically, it is a type of Pavlovian therapy / classical conditioning therapy developed by a South African psychiatrist, Joseph Wolpe. To begin the process of systematic desensitization, one must first be taught relaxation skills in order to control fear and anxiety responses to specific phobias. Once the individual has been taught these skills, he or she must use them to react towards and overcome situations in an established hierarchy of fears. The goal of this process is that an individual will learn to cope and overcome the fear in each step of the hierarchy, which will lead to overcoming the last step of the fear in the hierarchy. Systematic desensitization is sometimes called graduated exposure therapy.
Term
cognitive therapy
Definition
o Teaches people adaptive ways of thinking and acting based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions.
Term
role of dopamine in schizophrenia
Definition
o overload of dopamine… thorazine used to block the extra dopamine… can lead to tardive dyskinesia (also seen as a precursor for Parkinson’s)
Term
general effect of antipsychotic, anti-anxiety, antidepressant, and mood stabilizing drugs
Definition
o BIPOLAR: Lithium. It moderates the levels of norepinephrine and glutamate neurotransmitters.
o Work by increasing the availability of norepinephrine or serotonin, neurotransmitters that elevate arousal and mood and appear scarce during depression.
o Prozac partially blocks the reabsorption and removal of serotonin from synapses. Selective-serotonin-reuptake-inhibiters (SSRIs). Side effects: dry mouth, weight gain, hypertension, or dizzy spells
Term
obsessive-compulsive disorder
Definition
o Persistence of unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and urges to engage in senseless rituals (compulsions) that cause distress. High metabolic activity in the frontal love areas are involved directing attention
Term
self-esteem
Definition
Term
self-serving bias
Definition
o we accept responsibility for good deeds and successes more than for bad deeds and failures.
o Defensive Self-esteem is fragile and egotistic
o Secure Self-esteem is less fragile and less dependent on external evaluation.
Term
fundamental attribution error
Definition
o The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate the impact of the situation in analyzing the behaviors of others leads to the fundamental attribution error.
Term
Soloman Asch's studies
Definition
o The Asch conformity experiments were a series of studies published in the 1950s that demonstrated the power of conformity in groups. These are also known as the "Asch Paradigm".
Term
Stanley Milgram's studies
Definition
o Study to see who would shock the patients… and how far they would go. Most went all the way.
Term
social facilitation effect
Definition
o Stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.
Term
prejudice
Definition
Term
modeling
Definition
Term
the bystander effect
Definition
o EX: Someone is mugged in the middle of a street and left there… no one calls the cops because they thought that someone else had.
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