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Psychology Ch. 12
Development
191
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
09/13/2011

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Term
Developmental psychology
Definition
the study of the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life
Term
cross-sectional research
Definition
compares people of different ages at the same point in time. provides info about differences in development between different age groups.
Term
longitudinal research
Definition
traces the behavior of one or more participants as the participants age. asses change in behavior over time.
Term
sequential research
Definition
examines a number of age groups at several points in time. combo of cross-sectional and longitudinal
Term
best test subjects for nature vs. nurture
Definition
identical twins
Term
the human body contains ___ pairs of chromosomes
Definition
23
Term
each chromosome contains thousands of ___.
Definition
genes
Term
an immediately fertilized egg is referred to as a ___, when it is a one celled entity.
Definition
zygote
Term
from 2-8 weeks, the fertilized egg is referred to as an ___.
Definition
embryo
Term
a fertilized egg, from week 8 until birth, is referred to as a ___.
Definition
fetus
Term
age of viability
Definition
the point at which the fetus can survive if born prematurely.
Term
teratogens
Definition
environmental agents such as drugs, chemicals, viruses, or other factors that can produce a birth defect.
Term
neonate
Definition
a normal, completely developed child just after the moment of birth.
Term
a neonate is born with a number of ___.
Definition
reflexes
Term
reflexes
Definition
unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli.
Term
habituation
Definition
the decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations to the same stimulus.
Term
authoritarian parents
Definition
parents who are rigid and punitive and value unquestioning obedience from their children. children tend to be unsociable, unfriendly and relatively withdrawn
Term
permissive parents
Definition
parents who give their children relaxed or inconsistent direction, and although they are warm, require little of them. children show immaturity, moodiness, dependence, and low self control
Term
authoritative parents
Definition
parents who are firm, set clear limits, reason with their children, and explain things to them. Children have high social skills, likable, self reliant, independent, and cooperative
Term
uninvolved parents
Definition
parents who show little interest in their children and are emotionally detached. children feel unloved and are emotionally detached, and their physical and cognitive development are impeded .
Term
temperament
Definition
basic, innate disposition
Term
psychosocial development
Definition
development of individuals interactions and understanding of each other and of their knowledge and understanding of themselves as members of society.
Term
trust vs. mistrust stage
Definition
occurring from birth to 1.5 years, first stage during which time infants develop feeling of trust or lack of trust
Term
autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage
Definition
from 1.5 to 3 years, stage during which toddlers develop independence if exploration and freedom are encouraged or shame and self doubt if they are restricted and over protected
Term
initiative versus guilt stage
Definition
age 3-6, period during which children experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action.
Term
industry vs. inferiority stage
Definition
last stage of childhood, during which children age 6-12 may develop positive social interactions with others or may feel inadequate and become less sociable.
Term
cognitive development
Definition
the process by which a childs understanding of the world changes as a function of age and experience.
Term
object permanence
Definition
the awareness that objects and people continue to exist even if they are out of sight.
Term
4 cognitive stages
Definition
1. sensorimotor. 2. preoperational
3. concrete operational
4. formal operational.
Term
sensorimotor stage
Definition
birth-2 years, stage during which child has little competence in representing the environment by using images, language, or other symbols.
Term
Preoperational
Definition
ages 2-7, age that is characterized by language development, symbolic thinking, and egocentric thinking
Term
Concrete operational
Definition
age 7-12, stage characterized by development of conservation, mastery of concept of reversibility. loss of egocentrism.
Term
formal operational
Definition
age 12-adulthood, characterized by logical and abstract thought.
Term
principle of conservation
Definition
the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects.
Term
information processing
Definition
the way in which people take in, use, and store information.
Term
metacognition
Definition
an awareness and understanding of ones own cognitive self.
Term
zone of proximal development
Definition
the level at which a child can almost , but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own.
Term
attachment
Definition
the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual
Term
patterns of thinking, reasoning, remembering, and problem solving
Definition
cognitive development
Term
assimilation
Definition
interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemata without changing them.
Term
accomodation
Definition
changing existing schemas to explain new experiences
Term
egocentrism
Definition
limited ability to share another persons point of view
Term
lack of conservation: centration
Definition
only able to focus on one aspect of a situation at a time
Term
lack of conservation: irreversibility
Definition
able to mentally reverse a function
Term
concrete operations: operations
Definition
special schemata, can be applied to work on objects mentally.
Term
Eriksons 8 stages of psychosocial development
Definition

1. trust vs. mistrust stage 2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage 3. initiative vs. guilt stage 4. industry vs. inferiority stage

5. Identity vs. role confusion

6. Intimacy vs. isolation

7. generativity vs. stagnation

8. ego-integrity vs. despair

Term
William Wundt
Definition
opened first experimental psychology lab in Leipzeig Germany in 1879. studied the content of consciousness through the technique of introspection.
Term
William Wundts perspective was
Definition
structuralism
Term
structuralism
Definition
focusis on uncovering the fundamental mental components of consciousness,thinking, and other kinds of mental states and activities
Term
introspection
Definition
a procedure used to study the structure of the mind in which subjects are asked to describe in detail what they are experiencing when exposed to a stimulus.
Term
the process that replaced structuralism is known as ___
Definition
functionalism
Term
functionalism
Definition
rather than focusing on the minds structure, it concentrated on what the mind does and the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to their environments.
Term
functionalism was led by ___
Definition
American William James
Term
Edward Titchner
Definition
Student of Wundt who brought ideas to US and the methodology and discipline was termed structuralism.
Term
gestalt psychology
Definition
an approach to psychology that focuses on the organization of perception and thinking in a whole sense rather than on the individual elements of perception
Term
neuroscience perspective
Definition
the approach that views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions
Term
Sigmund Freud
Definition
working with clients with neurosis, developed theory of personality, psychodynamic perspective. said that personality is driven by forces beyond our control
Term
psychodynamic perspective
Definition
the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control
Term
behavioral perspective
Definition
the approach that suggests that observable,measurable behavior should be the focus of the study.
Term
famous behavioral psychologists
Definition
John Watson,Ivan Pavlov, and BF skinner
Term
cognitive perspective
Definition
the approach that focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world
Term
humanistic perspective
Definition
the approach that suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior
Term
from the cognitive perspective, thinking is ___
Definition
information processing
Term
humanistic perspective deals with ____
Definition
free will vs. determinism
Term
free will
Definition
the idea that behavior is caused primarily by choices that are made freely by the individual
Term
determinism
Definition
the idea that peoples behavior is produced primarily by factors outside of their willful control
Term
explain observable behavior vs. internal mental processes
Definition
should psychologists focus solely on behavior that can be seen by outside observers or should it focus on unseen thinking processes
Term
___ is one of the major issues that psychologists address
Definition
nature vs. nurture
Term
explain conscious vs. unconscious behavior
Definition
how much of our behavior is produced by forces of which we are fully aware of, and how much is due to unconscious behavior.
Term
explain individual differences versus universal principles
Definition
how much of our behavior is a consequence of our unique and special qualities, and how much reflects the culture and society in which we live.
Term
scientific method
Definition
the approach through which psychologists systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest.
Term
scientific method; 5 steps
Definition
1. define the problem
2. formulate hypothesis
3. design study and test hypothesis
4. analyze, interpret findings, draw conclustions
5. report findings
Term
theories
Definition
broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest
Term
theories are general principles that ____
Definition
attempt to explain how several facts or events are related
Term
theory of diffusion of responsibility
Definition
the greater the number of bystanders or witnesses to an event that calls for helping behavior, the more the responsibility for helping is perceived to be shared by all bystanders.
Term
according to the theory of diffusion of responsibility, the greater the number of bystanders in an emergency situation, the ___
Definition
smaller the share of the responsibility each person feels and the less likely that any single person will come forward to help.
Term
hypothesis
Definition
a prediction, stemming from a theory, stated in a way that allows it to be tested
Term
a hypothesis is a specific ____.
Definition
statement that attempts to describe or explain behavior
Term
a hypothesis will incorporate ___ variables
Definition
two or more
Term
a variable is any ___.
Definition
measureable condition, event, or any characteristic that is controlled or observed in a study.
Term
a variable must ___
Definition
vary/fluctuate
Term
examples of categorical variable
Definition
skin color,grade, eye color, class status
Term
operational definition
Definition
the translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed.
Term
examples of operational definition
Definition
heart rate, grade, points scored, any statistic
Term
archival research
Definition
research in which existing data, such as census documents/college records/newspapers are examined to test a hypothesis
Term
naturalistic observation
Definition
research in which an investigator simply observes some naturally occurring behavior and does not make a change in the situation
Term
survey research
Definition
research in which people chosen to represent a larger population are asked a series of questions about their behaviors thoughts or attitudes
Term
researchers who use surveys strive to obtain a ___ of the population
Definition
random sample
Term
case study
Definition
an in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of people.
Term
behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change or fluctuate in some way
Definition
variable
Term
correlational research
Definition
research in which the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated.
Term
correlation coefficient ranges from ___
Definition
+1.0 to -1.0
Term
a positive correlation indicates ___
Definition
that as the value of one variable increases, we can predict that the other variable will also increase.
Term
If correlation coefficient is positive then ___
Definition
it is a positive correlation. The closer it is to 1 the stronger the association between the variables
Term
a negative correlation tells us that ___
Definition
as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other decreases.
Term
a negative correlation coefficient indicates __
Definition
a negative correlation. The closer it is to -1.0, the stronger the negative association.
Term
finding that two variables are correlated ____
Definition
does not mean that there is a causal relationship between them.
Term
the mere fact that two variables occur together ____.
Definition
does not mean that one causes the other
Term
experiment
Definition
the investigation of the relationship between two or more variables by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of that situation.
Term
___ does not demonstrate causality, an alternative technique used to establish causality is the ____
Definition
correlational research;experiment
Term
experimental manipulation
Definition
the change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation
Term
independent variable
Definition
the condition or event that the experimenter varies in order to see it impact on another variable
Term
dependent variable
Definition
variable that is thought to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable
Term
an experiment always has __ groups
Definition
at least 2
Term
2 groups of an experiment
Definition
experimental group and control group
Term
extraneous variable
Definition
any variable, other than the independent variable, that seem likely to have an influence on the dependent variable.
Term
many extraneous variables are controlled through ___
Definition
random assignment
Term
In order to contain extraneous variables, experimenters want to make conditions between groups the same except for the ___.
Definition
independent variable
Term
treatment
Definition
the manipulation implemented by the experimenter.
Term
experimental group
Definition
any group participating in an experiment that receives a treatment
Term
control group
Definition
any group participating in an experiment that receives no treatment.
Term
the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter
Definition
independent variable
Term
the variable that is measured and is expected to change as a result of changes caused by the experimenters manipulation of the independent variable
Definition
dependent variable
Term
random assignment to condition
Definition
a procedure in which participants are assigned to different experimental groups or conditions on the basis of chance and chance alone.
Term
a hypothesis predicts ____
Definition
the effect the independent variable will have on the dependent variable
Term
significant outcome
Definition
meaningful results that make it possible for researchers to feel confident that they have confirmed their hypothesis
Term
psychologists require that findings be ___
Definition
replicated
Term
replicated research
Definition
research that is repeated, sometimes using other procedures, settings, and groups of participants, to increase confidence in prior findings.
Term
informed consent
Definition
a document signed by participants affirming that they have been told the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve.
Term
experimental bias are factors that___.
Definition
distort how the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment.
Term
placebo
Definition
a false treatment, such as a pill,drug, or other substance withou
Term
one of the most common forms of experimental bias is
Definition
experimenter expectations
Term
experimenter expectations
Definition
an experimenter unintentionally transmits cues to participants about the way they are expected to behave in a given experimental condition
Term
double blind procedure
Definition
to overcome experimenter expectations, the person who administers the drug shouldnt know whether it is the drug or the placebo
Term
From what 2 disciplines did psychology emerge
Definition
biology and philosophy
Term
what are the 6 major current perspectives?
Definition
biological, behavioral, psychodynamic, cognitive, humanistic, sociocultural
Term
Important goals of research/science
Definition
-measurement and description
-explanation and understanding
-prediction and control
Term
germinal period
Definition
The first two weeks after conception, zygote starts out as a speck.
Term
embryonic period
Definition
lasts from week 2-8, embryo. grows 10,000 times larger by 4 weeks of age at about 1/5 inch long. Organs start developing. by week 8, about an inch long and has discernible arms,legs, and a face.
Term
fetal period
Definition
from week 8 until birth, movements become strong enough that mothers feel them, responds to touch, hair may begin to grow, organs begin functioning.
Term
age of viability is about _ weeks
Definition
about 22 weeks
Term
4 stages of cognitive development
Definition
1. sensorimotor
2. preoperational
3. concrete operations
4. formal operations
Term
4 general areas of development
Definition
physical, cognitive, social, moral
Term
cephalocaudal trend
Definition
is the prenatal growth from conception to 5 months when the head grows more than the body. It is also the trend of infants learning to use their upper limbs before their lower limbs
Term
proximodistal trend
Definition
is the prenatal growth from 5 months to birth when the fetus grows from the inside of the body outwards. When referring to motor development, the proximodistal trend refers to the development of motor skills from the center of the body outwards.
Term
explain Harry Harlows study with monkeys
Definition
harlow gave the monkey the choice of cuddling with a wire monkey that fed it milk, or a soft terry cloth monkey that was warm but did not feed it milk. Monkeys spent most of the time with the warm terry cloth monkey. food alone was insufficient to create attachment
Term
4 attachment reactions
Definition
securely attached, avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized-disoriented
Term
securely attached
Definition
1 year olds showing this employ the mother as a kind of home base, they explore independently but return to her occasionaly. When she leaves, they exhibit distress, but go to her when she returns.
Term
avoidant children
Definition
they do not cry when their mother leaves, and they seem to avoid her when she returns as if indifferent to her.
Term
ambivalent children
Definition
display anxiety before they are seperated and are upset when the mother leaves, but they may show ambivalent actions to her return, such as seeking close contact but simultaneously hitting and kicking her.
Term
disorganized-disoriented
Definition
these children show inconsistent and often contradictory behvior
Term
How do temperament and attachment interact
Definition
the kind of temperament a baby is born with may in part bring about specific kinds of parental child rearing styles
Term
Eriksons 4 stages of psychosocial development
Definition
trust vs. mistrust stage
autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage
initiative vs. guilt stage
industry vs. inferiority stage
Term
Kohlbergs stages of moral development
Definition
1. Preconventional: see things as right or wrong based on rewards or consequences.
2. Conventional: Based on social norms, how you are viewed
3. Postconventional: Self created ethics based on your own beliefs
Term
adolescence
Definition
the developmental stage between childhood and adulthood
Term
puberty
Definition
the period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs,begins around 11 or 12 for girls, and 13 or 14 for boys.
Term
fluid intelligence
Definition
which involves information processing skills such as memory, calculations, and analogy solving. How quickly you process knowledge
Term
crystallized intelligence
Definition
intelligence based on the accumulation of information (memory), skills, and strategies learned through experience
Term
Are intelligence declines an inevitable part of aging?
Definition
No, fluid intelligence does decline with age, and long term memory abilities are sometimes impaired. In contrast crystallized intelligence show slight increases with age, and short term memory remains about the same.
Term
why do older people have lower scores on IQ tests?
Definition
a) type of test
b) disuse hypothesis
c) generation hypothesis
Term
attitudes
Definition
evaluations of a particular person, behavior, belief, or concept
Term
social psychology
Definition
how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
Term
beliefs and feelings that predispose one to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.
Definition
attitudes
Term
interactionism
Definition
the interaction between an individuals characteristics and the situational influences.
Term
Interactionism formula
Definition
B=f(P,E)
behavior is a function of the person and the environment
Term
central route processing
Definition
message interpretation characterized by thoughtful consideration of the issues and arguments used to persuade.
Term
peripheral route processing
Definition
message interpretation characterized by consideration of the source and related general information rather than of the message itself.
Term
cognitive dissonance
Definition
the conflict that occurs when a person holds two contradictory attitudes or thoughts.
Term
social cognition
Definition
the cognitive processes by which people understand and make sense of others and themselves.
Term
schemas
Definition
sets of cognitions about people and social experiences.
Term
central traits
Definition
the major traits considered in forming impressions of others
Term
attribution theory
Definition
the theory of personality that seeks to explain how we decide, on the basis of samples of an individuals behavior, what the specific causes of that persons behavior are.
Term
situational causes of behavior
Definition
perceived causes of behavior that are based on environmental factors
Term
dispositional causes of behavior
Definition
perceived causes of behavior that are based on internal traits or personality factors.
Term
halo effect
Definition
a phenomenon in which an understanding that a person has positive traits is used to infer other uniformly positive characteristics.
Term
assumed similarity bias
Definition
the tendency to think of people as being similar to oneself even when meeting them for the first time.
Term
self-serving bias
Definition
the tendency to attribute personal success to personal factors and to attribute failure to factors outside oneself.
Term
fundamental attribution error
Definition
a tendency to overattribute others behavior to dispositional causes and minimize the importance of situational causes.
Term
social influence
Definition
the process by which the actions of an individual or group affect the behavior of others
Term
ABC model of attitudes
Definition
Affect
Behavioral PreDisposition
Cognitions: Thoughts
Term
When do attitudes guide behaviors
Definition
1) Strong, central attitudes
2) specific attitudes
Term
When do behaviors guide attitude?
Definition
cognitive dissonance, couter attitudinal behavior
Term
Persuasion and attitude change: 3 things
Definition
1. message source
2. Characteristics of message
3. Characteristics of target (receiver)
Term
Message source:
Definition
1) credibility
2) attractiveness
3) similarity
Term
characteristics of message
Definition
1. message must i)capture attention ii)be understandable iii) be convincing iv) be memorable
2. two sided arguments
3. Fear appeals
Term
Characteristics of target/receiver
Definition
1) need for cognition
a)central route processing
b) peripheral route processing
2) original attitude position
Term
conformity
Definition
a change in behavior or attitudes brought about by a desire to follow the beliefs or standards of other people
Term
compliance
Definition
behavior that occurs in response to direct social pressure
Term
obediance
Definition
a change in behavior in response to the commands of others
Term
Milgram experiments showed
Definition
obediance to shock others
Term
Asch - line experiments
Definition
showed conformity to group
Term
Sherif - Autokinetic effect
Definition
showed power of the influence of others, think the time experiment we did in class
Term
When will conformity pressure be the strongest (5 things):
Definition
1) group is highly attractive
2)individual has low status in the group
3) public vs. private response
4) ambiguous task
5) Unanimity of the group
Term
Tools of influence for compliance(6):
Definition
1)ingratiation
2)reciprocity (not so free sample)
3) thats not all technique
4) foot in the door technique
5) door in the face technique
6) Low Balling
Term
discrimination
Definition
behavior directed toward individuals on the basis of their membership in a particular group
Term
prejudice
Definition
a negative or positive evaluation of a particular group and its members
Term
stereotype
Definition
a set of generalized beliefs and expectations about a particular group and its members
Term
6 factors that influence attraction
Definition
proximity, mere exposure, similarity, physical attractiveness, ingratiation, and reciprocity
Term
what is the bystander effect
Definition
the more people that witness an event, the less likely someone is to help.
Term
3 factors that lead to the bystander effect
Definition
1) Diffusion of responsibility
2) informational influence
3) evaluation apprehension
Term
decision model of helping
Definition
1) notice the event
2) interpret as an emergency
3) assume responsibility
4) know how to help
5) decide to help
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