Shared Flashcard Set

Details

Psychology 201 Final Review
Based on Psychological Science by Gazzaniga, Heatherton, & Halpern
155
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
05/09/2013

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
critical thinking
Definition
Systematically evaluating information to reach reasonable conclusions.
Term
hypothesis
Definition
A specific prediction of what should be observed if a theory is correct.
Term
independent variable
Definition
In an experiment, the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter to examine its impact on the dependent variable.
Term
dependent variable
Definition
In an experiment, the variable that is affected by the manipulation of the independent variable.
Term
random sampling
Definition
Choosing a sample of a population randomly to be sure that the sample represents the population.
Term
mean
Definition
A measure of central tendency that is the arithmetic average of a set of numbers.
Term
mode
Definition
A measure of central tendency that is the most frequent score or value in a set of numbers.
Term
median
Definition
A measure of central tendency that is the value in a set of numbers that falls exactly halfway between the highest and lowest values.
Term
neurons
Definition
The basic units of the nervous system; cells that receive, integrate, and transmit information in the nervous system. They operate through electrical impulses.
Term
afferent (sensory) neurons
Definition
Detect information from the physical world and pass it to the brain.
Term
efferent (motor) neurons
Definition
Direct muscles to contract or relax, thereby producing movement.
Term
axon
Definition
A long, narrow outgrowth of a neuron by which information is transmitted to other neurons.
Term
dendrites
Definition
Branchlike extensions of the neuron that detect information from other neurons.
Term
cell body (soma)
Definition
Site, in the neuron, where information from thousands of other neurons is collected and integrated.
Term
sympathetic nervous system
Definition
Prepares the body for action.
Term
parasympathetic nervous system
Definition
Returns the body to its resting state.
Term
hormones
Definition
Chemical substances released from endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to targeted tissues; the tissues are subsequently influenced by them.
Term
sensation
Definition
Detection of external stimuli, response to the stimuli, and the transmission of these responses to the brain.
Term
perception
Definition
The processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals; it results in an internal representation of the stimulus.
Term
transduction
Definition
A process by which sensory receptors produce neural impulses when they receive physical or chemical stimulation.
Term
absolute threshold
Definition
The minimum intensity of stimulation that must occur before you experience a sensation.
Term
difference threshold
Definition
The just noticeable difference between two stimuli.
Term
pain perception
Definition
When damage happens to the haptic receptors (found in skin, muscles, membranes around joints and bones, organs, etc.) an electrical signal is sent to the brain that conveys discomfort.
Term
Gestalt principles
Definition
Describes how perceived features of a visual scene are grouped into organized wholes.
Term
proximity (Gestalt)
Definition
The closer two figures are to each other, the more likely we are to group them and see them as a part of the same object.
Term
similarity (Gestalt)
Definition
The tendency to group figures according to how closely they resemble each other.
Term
good continuation (Gestalt)
Definition
The tendency to interpret intersecting lines as continuous.
Term
closure (Gestalt)
Definition
The tendency to complete figures even when gaps exist.
Term
illusory contours (Gestalt)
Definition
The tendency to perceive contours even whey they do not exist.
Term
bottom-up processing
Definition
A hierarchal model of pattern recognition in which data are relayed from one level of mental processing to the next, always moving to a higher level of processing. Example: If an object is made of fabric, has sleeves, a collar, and buttons down the front, then it must be a shirt.
Term
top-down processing
Definition
A hierarchal model of pattern recognition in which information at higher levels of mental processing can also influence lower, earlier levels in the processing hierarchy. Example: If you look at a chair, you know that it must have legs, a seat, and a back to comprise a chair.
Term
insomnia
Definition
A disorder characterized by an inability to sleep.
Term
obstructive sleep apnea
Definition
A disorder in which a person, while asleep, stops breathing because his/her throat closes; the condition results in frequent awakenings during the night.
Term
narcolepsy
Definition
A sleep disorder in which people experience excessive sleepiness during normal waking hours, sometimes going limp and collapsing with sleep.
Term
psychoactive drugs
Definition
Mind-altering substances that change the brain's neurochemistry by activating neurotransmitter systems.
Term
marijuana
Definition
The most widely-used drug in the world that can have the effects of stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen.
Term
cocaine
Definition
A psychoactive drug that increased the concentration of dopamine in the neural synapse. It causes its users to feel alert, energetic, sociable, and wide awake.
Term
amphetamines
Definition
Psychoactive drugs that block the reuptake of dopamine and increase its release. It is easy to become addicted to these, and with long term use, brain structures become damages. Negative side effects include insomnia, anxiety, and heart, skin, and dental problems.
Term
MDMA (ecstasy)
Definition
A psychoactive drug that is associated with serotonin release, which may explain its hallucinogenic properties. Users often feel depressed after its effects wear off. Produces similar effects to that of stimulants. Long-term use causes memory problems and a diminished ability to perform complex tasks.
Term
addiction
Definition
Drug use that remains compulsive despite its negative consequences. It consists of physical and psychological factors.
Term
withdrawal
Definition
When a drug addict fails to use the substance they are addicted to, they experience a physiological and psychological state characterized by feelings of anxiety, tension, and cravings for the addictive substance.
Term
conditioned stimulus
Definition
A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place.
Term
unconditioned stimulus
Definition
A stimulus that elicits a response, such as a reflex, without any prior learning.
Term
conditioned response
Definition
A response to a conditioned stimulus that has been learned.
Term
classical conditioning (Pavolovian)
Definition
A type of learned response; a neutral object comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response.
Term
operant conditioning
Definition
A learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future.
Term
acquisition
Definition
The gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.
Term
extinction
Definition
A process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus.
Term
spontaneous recovery
Definition
A process in which a previously extinguished response reemerges after the presentation of the conditioned stimulus.
Term
generalization
Definition
Learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response.
Term
discrimination
Definition
A differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
Term
Law of Effect
Definition
Thorndike's general theory of learning: Any behavior that leads to a satisfying state of affairs is likely to occur again, and any behavior that leads to an annoying state of affairs is less likely to occur again.
Term
positive reinforcement
Definition
The administration of a stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior's being repeated.
Term
negative reinforcement
Definition
The removal of a stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior's being repeated.
Term
positive punishment
Definition
The administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring.
Term
negative punishment
Definition
The removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring.
Term
Schedules of Reinforcement
Definition
Ratio, interval, fixed, variable
Term
ratio (schedule of reinforcement)
Definition
Based on the number of times the behavior occurs.
Term
interval (schedules of reinforcement)
Definition
Based on a specific unit of time.
Term
fixed (schedules of reinforcement)
Definition
Based on a specific number of occurrences or after a specific period of time.
Term
variable (schedules of reinforcement)
Definition
Based on different rates or different times.
Term
modeling
Definition
The imitation of behavior through observational learning.
Term
encoding
Definition
The processing of information so that it can be stored.
Term
storage
Definition
The retention of encoded representations over time.
Term
retrieval
Definition
The act of recalling or remember stored information when it is needed.
Term
chunking
Definition
Organizing information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember.
Term
serial position effect
Definition
The ability to recall items from a list depends on the order of presentation, with items presented early or late in the list remembered better than those in the middle.
Term
schemas
Definition
Cognitive structures that help us perceive, organize, process, and use information.
Term
state-dependent memory
Definition
When a person's internal states match during encoding and recall, memory can be enhanced.
Term
proactive interference
Definition
When prior information inhibits the ability to remember new information.
Term
retroactive interference
Definition
When new information inhibits the ability to remember old information.
Term
algorithms
Definition
Step-by-step procedures for solving problems and making decisions.
Term
heuristics
Definition
Shortcuts (rules of thumb or guidelines) used to reduce the amount of thinking that is needed to make decisions.
Term
teratogens
Definition
Environmental agents that harm an embryo or fetus in utero.
Term
synaptic pruning
Definition
A process whereby the synaptic connections in the brain that are used are preserved and those that are not are lost.
Term
sensitive periods
Definition
Time periods when specific skills develop most easily.
Term
attachment
Definition
A strong emotional connection that persists over time and across circumstances.
Term
Piaget's Theory
Definition
The idea that children go through four stages of development which reflect different ways of thinking about the world.
Term
sensorimotor stage (Piaget)
Definition
Development from birth to 2 years. During this period, a child learns to differentiate self from objects, recognizes himself as an agent of action and begins to act intentionally. Object permanence is also achieved.
Term
preoperational stage (Piaget)
Definition
Development from 2-7 years of age. During this period, a child learns to use language and represent objects by images and words. They still exhibit egocentric thinking and learn to classify objects by a single feature.
Term
concrete operational stage (Piaget)
Definition
Development from 7-12 years of age. During this period, a child can think logically about objects and events and learns conservation of number, mass, and weight.
Term
formal operational stage (Piaget)
Definition
Development from 12-adulthood. At this point, a person can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systematically.
Term
assimilation
Definition
The process by which we place new information into an existing schema.
Term
acoommodation
Definition
The process by which we create a new schema or drastically alter an existing schema to include new information that otherwise would not fit into the schema.
Term
James-Lange Theory
Definition
States that bodily perception because apparent before the feeling of emotion.
Term
Canon-Bard Theory
Definition
States that emotion and physical reactions to stimuli happen together.
Term
need
Definition
A state of biological or social deficiency.
Term
drive
Definition
A psychological state that, by creating arousal, motivates an organism to satisfy a need.
Term
stress
Definition
A pattern of behavioral, psychological, and physiological responses to events.
Term
emotion-focused coping
Definition
People try to prevent having an emotional response to a stressor.
Term
problem-focused coping
Definition
People take direct steps to confront or minimize a stressor.
Term
attribution theory
Definition
People's explanations for why events or actions occur.
Term
fundamental attribution error
Definition
In explaining other people's behavior, the tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational factors.
Term
stereotypes
Definition
Cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups.
Term
prejudice
Definition
Negative feelings, opinions, and beliefs associated with a stereotype.
Term
ingroup bias
Definition
The tendency for people to evaluate favorably and privilege members of the ingroup more than members of the outgroup.
Term
exposure effect
Definition
Greater familiarity with an item causes people to have more positive attitudes about the item.
Term
implicit attitudes
Definition
Influence a person's feelings and behavior at an unconscious level.
Term
explicit attitudes
Definition
A person can report these.
Term
cognitive dissonance
Definition
An uncomfortable mental state due to a contradiction between two attitudes or between an attitude and behavior.
Term
persuasion
Definition
The active and conscious effort to change an attitude through the transmission of a message.
Term
social loafing
Definition
The tendency for people to work less hard in a group than when working alone.
Term
social facilitation
Definition
When the mere presence of others enhances performance.
Term
deindividuation
Definition
A state of reduced individuality, self-awareness, and attention to personal standards.
Term
conformity
Definition
The altering of one's behaviors and opinions to match those of other people or to match other people's expectations.
Term
door-in-the-face technique
Definition
People are more likely to agree to a small request after they have refused a large request.
Term
foot-in-the-door technique
Definition
If people agree to a small request, they become more likely to comply with a large and undesirable one.
Term
personality
Definition
The characteristic thoughts, emotional responses, and behaviors that are relatively stable in an individual over time and across circumstances.
Term
id (psychodynamic theory)
Definition
The component of personality that is completely submerged in the unconscious and operates according to the pleasure principle.
Term
ego (psychodynamic theory)
Definition
The component of personality that tries to satisfy the wishes of the id while being responsive to the dictates of the superego.
Term
superego (psychodynamic theory)
Definition
The internalization of societal and parental standards of conduct.
Term
pleasure principle
Definition
Driven by the libido (energy that promotes pleasure seeking), which seeks pleasure and avoids pain.
Term
reality principle
Definition
Operates the ego, which involves rational thought and problem solving.
Term
defense mechanisms
Definition
Unconscious mental strategies that the mind uses to protect itself from distress.
Term
external locus of control
Definition
People with this believe rewards, and therefore their personal fates, result from forces beyond their control.
Term
internal locus of control
Definition
People with this believe they bring about their own rewards.
Term
projective personality tests
Definition
These examine unconscious processes by having people interpret ambiguous stimuli, such as a Rorschach inkblot test.
Term
objective personality tests
Definition
These relatively direct assessments of personality are based on information gathered through self-report questionnaires or observer ratings.
Term
self-awareness
Definition
The sense of self as the object of attention.
Term
self-schema
Definition
Interrelated knowledge about the self.
Term
working self-concept
Definition
The immediate experience of the self. This causes it to vary from situation to situation.
Term
individualistic culture
Definition
The most important elements of a person's self-construal tend to reside within the person. Children are taught to be self-reliant and to pursue personal success, even at the expense of interpersonal relationships.
Term
collectivist cultures
Definition
The most important elements of a person's self-construal tend to reside in areas where the person's sense of self is connected with others. The people's self-concepts are determined to a large extent by their social roles and personal relationships.
Term
diathesis-stress model
Definition
A diagnostic tool that proposes that a disorder may develop when an underlying vulnerability is coupled with a precipitating event.
Term
phobias
Definition
An exaggerated fear of a specific object or situation out of proportion to the feared object or situation.
Term
generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
Definition
A diffuse state of constant anxiety not associated with any specific object or event.
Term
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Definition
A mental disorder that involves frequent nightmares, intrusive thoughts, and flashbacks related to an earlier trauma.
Term
panic disorder
Definition
An anxiety disorder characterized by sudden, overwhelming attacks of terror.
Term
agoraphobia
Definition
An anxiety disorder marked by a fear of being in situations in which escape may be difficult or impossible.
Term
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
Definition
An anxiety disorder characterized by frequent intrusive thoughts and compulsive actions.
Term
major depression
Definition
Severe negative moods or a lack of interest in normally pleasurable activities.
Term
learned helplessness model of depression
Definition
When people feel unable to control events in their lives.
Term
hallucinations
Definition
False sensory perceptions that are experienced without an external source.
Term
delusions
Definition
False beliefs based on incorrect inferences about reality.
Term
schizophrenia
Definition
A psychological disorder characterized by a split between thought and emotion; it involves alterations in thoughts, perceptions, or consciousness.
Term
antisocial personality disorder (APD)
Definition
Marked by a lack of empathy and remorse. People with this were originally described as psychopaths.
Term
psychoanalytic therapy
Definition
The goal is to increase the client's awareness of his or her own unconscious psychological processes and how these processes affect daily functioning.
Term
humanistic therapy
Definition
Emphasizes personal experience and the individual's belief systems.
Term
behavioral therapy
Definition
Treatment based on the premise that behavior is learned and therefore can be unlearned through the use of classical and operant conditioning.
Term
cognitive therapy
Definition
Treatment based on the idea that distorted thought produce maladaptive behaviors and emotions; treatment strategies attempt to modify these thought patterns.
Term
cognitive restructuring
Definition
A therapy that strives to help patients recognize maladaptive thought patterns and replace them with ways of viewing the world that are more in tune with reality.
Term
cognitive-behavioral therapy
Definition
Treatment that incorporates techniques to correct faulty thinking and change maladaptive behaviors.
Term
psychotropic medications
Definition
Drugs that affect mental processes.
Term
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
Definition
A procedure that involves administering a current to the patient's brain to produce a seizure; it is effective for some cases of severe depression.
Term
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
Definition
A current is sent through a wire coil placed over the scalp where a brain area is to be stimulated. This stimulation interrupts neural function in that region. Used mainly to treat severe depression.
Term
deep brain stimulation (DBS)
Definition
An electrical generator is placed just under the skin below the collarbone that sends out continuous stimulation to the implanted electrodes. Used for a variety of medical conditions, such as Parkinson's, severe OCD, and major depression.
Term
systematic desensitization
Definition
A gradual form of exposure therapy that includes repeated exposure to an anxiety-producing stimulus that is a reliable treatment for many phobias.
Term
antidepressants
Definition
A psychotropic medication used for the treatment of depression.
Term
monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
Definition
A type of antidepressant. Monoamine oxidase is an enzyme that breaks down serotonin in the synapse, and MAOIs stop this process, allowing more serotonin to be available in the synapse.
Term
tricyclic antidepressants
Definition
Drugs that inhibit the reuptake of certain neurotransmitters, resulting in more of each neurotransmitter being available in the synapse.
Term
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
Definition
Drugs that inhibit the reuptake of serotonin but act on other neurotransmitters to a significantly lesser extent. Prozac is a commonly used SSRI because of its low occurrence of negative side effects.
Term
clinical psychologist
Definition
A person who typically has a doctoral degree in psychology and works in academic or hospital settings where they conduct research in addition to providing treatment.
Term
psychiatrist
Definition
A person with a medical degree and 3-4 years of extra training in residency. Often work in hospitals or private practices and are the only mental health practitioners legally authorized to prescribe medications.
Term
attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Definition
A pattern of hyperactive, inattentive, and impulsive behavior that causes social or academic impairment.
Term
lobotomy
Definition
A deliberate damaging of the prefrontal cortex of the brain that leaves patients lethargic and emotionally flat, thus easier to manage. It also leaves them disconnected from their social surroundings. This surgical treatment was popular in the late 1940s - early 1950s but has been phased out due to the development of psychotropic drugs.
Supporting users have an ad free experience!