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Psychology 110
University of Saskatchewan
227
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
04/07/2009

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Term
What is psychology?
Definition
The study of behaviour and mental processes. Psychology has structure like all sciences.
Term
What are the five aspects of Human Functioning?
Definition
1. Overt Actions/ behaviour - observable behaviours or measurable behaviours (walking/hand movements)
2. Social relationships - the behaviours that actually define relationships (Ex. Student and Instructor; what happens between the two)
3. Mental Processes- how we think and process information (what are people thinking about)
4. Emotional Response - cause physiological reactions (Fear)
5. Physiological Reactions - the physiological responses or bodily responses (Stress responses such as heart rate)
Term
What are the three key principals of a science?
Definition
1. Objectivity
2. Accuracy
3. Healthy Skepticism
Term
What is objectivity?
Definition
1. Excludes anecdoctal reports (really describing what is happening; not scientific)
2. Get rid of preconceived ideas during research
3. Go into situations with an open mind
Term
What is accuracy?
Definition
1. Gather information in precise ways
2. Helpful to outline a head of time
Term
What is healthy skepticism?
Definition
1. Keep an open mind.
2. Look for repetition of results (so others can replicate the study and get similar results)
3. We can then start theories.
Term
What is a theory?
Definition
A theory is a collection of interelated ideas and facts that we use to predict and explain behaviours.
Term
What are the six steps of the scientific method?
Definition
1. State the problem.
2. Develop a hypothesis.
3. Design a study.
4. Data collection and analysis.
5. Replication of results.
6. Drawing conclusions and reporting results.
Term
What are sources of psychological diversity?
Definition
1. Race - a person's ancestry and heritable traits (genetically determined)
2. Ethnicity - the common traits of people (culture, religion or language based)
3. Culture - reflects the racial and ethnic background of a person.
4. Class - can be based on wealth or education.
5. Gender - either female or male
6. Exceptionality - refers to a person's disability; differences in a person's environment or personal being.
Term
Who studied Phrenology?
Definition
Gall measured the bumps on the head.
Term
What are the four main perspectives developed in Psychology?
Definition
1. Structuralism
2. Functionalism
3. Gestalt
4. Psychoanalysis
Term
Who was the first scientist/researcher to use the scientific method or consider psychology a science?
Definition
William Wundt.
Term
Who brought Wundt's work to an English speaking world?
Definition
Titchner
Term
What does structuralism focus on? Who studied structuarlism?
Definition
1. Focuses on the immediate conscious experience. Behaviour analyzed into basic parts or structures.
2. Wundt and Titchner
Term
What is introspection?
Definition
Person's description of how she is thinking and feeling. Its used to examine conscious experience.
Term
What is functionalism? Who studied it?
Definition
1. Studies how and why the mind functions; why something happens; felt that consciousness was continuous & evolving.
2. William James
Term
Who studied Gestalt psychology? What is Gestalt psychology?
Definition
1. Wertheimer, Koffka, and Kohler
2. Argued that conscious experience is more than the sum of individual parts. You must examine the TOTAL experience.
Term
Who studied psychoanalysis? What is it? How can unconscious motives be studied?
Definition
1. Sigmund Freud
2. Unconscious mental processes direct behaviour. Childhood experiences influence adult behaviour.
3. Free Association and Dream Analysis
Term
What are the 8 modern views of psychology?
Definition
Behaviourism, Humanistic Perspective, Cognitive Perspective, Biopsychology, Evolutionary Psychology, Sociocultural Perspective, Feminist Psychology, and Eclecticism.
Term
Who studied behaviourism? What is it? Who are two people that studied behaviourism with applications?
Definition
1. John Watson
2. Rejected the study of consciousness. Argued that all behaviour represents learned responses to stimuli; focuses on overt behaviour.
3. Pavlov - Classical Conditioning - his dogs and ringing a bell near supper.
Skinner - Stimulus Response - Teaching a bird how to play piano with a reward; pecking the keyboard earns a reward.
Term
What is a type of behaviourism therapy?
Definition
Therapy consists of replacing dysfunctional behaviour with appropriate behaviour through learning. Another example is John Watson and Little Albert.
Term
What is humanistic perspective? Who studied it?
Definition
1. Emphasizes on the innate goodness of people and free will.
2. Rogers and Maslow
Term
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is based on what type of modern psychology?
Definition
The Humanistic Perspective
Term
What is Self-Actualization? Which modern psychology perspective is it based from?
Definition
1. People strive for psychological growth and self-fulliment
2. Humanistic Perspective
Term
What is Cognitive psychology? Who studied it?
Definition
1. Focuses on mind processes including perception, memory and thinking. People engage in behaviours because of ideas and thoughts. Therapy examines how negative cognitions are influencing behaviour.
2. Bandura, Ellis, and Beck
Term
Which perspective of modern psychology involves therapy examining how negative cognitions are influencing behaviours?
Definition
1. Cognitive Psychology - If you think you will fail an exam, you will.
Term
What is Biopsychology? Who studied it? What type of therapy is available?
Definition
1. Examining how the brain controls behaviour.
2. Hebb, Chomsky, and Ghottesman
3. Therapy often involves medication - antidepressants
Term
Which type of modern psychology would use a lobotomy as therapy in older days?
Definition
Biopsychology
Term
Who's work is evolutionary psychology based upon and what is it?
Definition
1. Charles Darwin
2. Certain human behaviour is innate (Encoded into genes); Behaviour that helps a species adapt will be passed on through generations. Anything damaging will be weeded out.
Term
Who created the Sociocultural Perspective? What is it? What are examples?
Definition
1. Bruner and Broffenbrenner.
2. Emphasizes on social and cultural influences on behaviour.
3. Social - the study of rules, roles, groups and relationships.
Cultural - the study of cultural norms, values and expectations.
Term
Who studied Feminist psychology? What is it?
Definition
1. Gilligan
2. Analyzes the influence of social inequalities on gender relations and on the behaviour of the two sexes.
Term
What is Eeclecticism?
Definition
Combination of many theories, facts and techniques for therapeutic change.
Term
What are the three things that make psychology research scientific?
Definition
1. Skepticism
2. Objectivity
3. Accuracy
Term
What is skepticism?
Definition
Keeping an open mind to all the possibilities of a situation.
Term
What is objectivity?
Definition
Evalutating your information w/o bias
Term
What is accuract?
Definition
Precision/Reliance on empirical evidence.
Term
What is a confirmation bias?
Definition
The tendency to look for or only pay attention only to information that confirms one's own belief; confirming our own bias.
Term
What is an operational definition?
Definition
Define what our main objectives mean.
Term
What is the difference between the experimental group and the control group?
Definition
The experimental group recieves the independent variable. The control group recieves the Placebo(the comparison group).
Term
How is group equivalence assured?
Definition
Random assignment of participants to groups.
Term
What are variables?
Definition
Variables are conditions that are subject to change across people (any event or characteristic existing in more than one state)- Gender, age
Term
What is an indepedent variable? What is a dependent variable?
Definition
1. Anything controlled by the experimenter. Such as age and gender.
2. What is being measured; things like amount of violence, type of violence or type of medication, how much time...
Term
What are experimentor effects?
Definition
Unintended changes in a subject's behaviour due to cues inadvertently given by the experimenter. Examples are body language, image; non verbal language.
Term
What are strategies to eliminate experimentor effects?
Definition
The use of sinlge and double blind studies. Single blind studies are when the experimenter knows whose in each group but the subjects do not. In double blind studies, neither the experimenter or the the subject knows who is in which room.
Term
What is the statistical significance or difference?
Definition
The difference between groups is not due to chance.
Term
How do you evaluate the findings of your study?
Definition
Using the statistical significance and correlation coefficients.
Term
What are correlation coefficients?
Definition
Statistical values calculated to determine the degree of relationship between variables.
Term
Do correlations show causation? What is an example?
Definition
1. NO, correlations do not show correlation.
2. An example would be that areas affected by poverty also have higer levels of crime. We cannot say that poverty causes crime.
Term
What are non-experimental studies? What are types?
Definition
1. Non-experimental methods can provide descriptive information about real life.
2. Questionnaire/ Survey, Interviews, Case Study, and Naturalistic Observation.
Term
What are four critical issues surrounding research of humans?
Definition
1. Confidentiality
2. Informed consent. - children cannot give consent.
3. Minimize Discomfort- ethically researcher is responsible for any harm.
4. Debriefing - participants are informed about the true nature of the study; if deception occurred, now is the time to inform participants.
Term
Why do we use animals in research? Several reasons.
Definition
1. To conduct basic research.
2. To discover practical applications.
3. To study issues that cannot be studied experimentally with human beings. - less ethical issues
4. To clarify theoretical questions
5. To improve human welfare.
Term
What is wrong with using animals in research? What must be determined before a study begins?
Definition
1. Results can not always be generalized to apply to humans. Something that works for mice, may not work for humans always.
2. How many people will be helped by the study; does it outweigh the risks?
Term
What is the difference between nature and nurture?
Definition
1. Nature is the biological factors.
2. Nurture is the environmental factors such as family experiences and conditioning (learning).
Term
What is evolutionary psychology?
Definition
Studies how the brain has adapted and changed over time. Every change the brain goes throguh serves the purpose of survival.
Term
When does an adaptatio occur?
Definition
Occurs when a trait is increased in a population.
Term
Evolutionary psychologists recognize that behaviour occurs within a ______ or ______ context.
Definition
1. Cultural
2. Environmental
Term
What behavioural determinism suggest?
Definition
That evolution fully determines behaviour.
Term
Do evolutionary psychologists support Behavioural Determinism?
Definition
No.
Term
What is the Epigenetic Framework?
Definition
Believes that three factors influence each other. The factors are Environment, Behaviour, and Gene Experession.
Term
What are genes?
Definition
Functional units of DNA.
Term
Genetic traits are controlled by _____________.
Definition
by pairs of genes
Term
What is a genome?
Definition
Full set of genes in each cell of an organism (with the exception of sex cells such as sperm or egg cells)
Term
What is a genotype?
Definition
A person's genetic makeup which is fixed at conception.
Term
What is a phenotype?
Definition
A person's observable characteristics. An example is eye color.
Term
What are dominant genes?
Definition
Always visible if inherited.
Term
What are recessive genes?
Definition
Visible only if both members in the gene pair are recessive.
Term
What is heritability?
Definition
Descriptive statistic of a trait in a particular population such as depression, height, etc. The portion of individual differences attributable to genetics (ranges 0-100).
Term
Do heritability estimates apply to individuals?
Definition
No. They apply only to variations within a group.
Term
What is an example of Concordance?
Definition
What percent of the time do twins both show a trait?
High concordance range disorders include schizophrenia and autism. (ranges from 0-100%)
Term
Heredity and environment always interact to produce ____________________.
Definition
the unique mixture of qualities that make a human.
Term
Psychological diversity is _________.
Definition
Adaptive
Term
What does a neuron do? What is a neuron?
Definition
1. Transmits electrical signals throughout the body.
2. The basic unit of the nervous system
Term
What does the Nervous System provide?
Definition
Communication highway of the body; any signals transmitted happen through the nervous system.
Term
What are the three basic types of neurons?
Definition
1. Sensory Neurons - carry sensory messages to the brain; sensory messages= senses.
2. Motor neurons - carry messages from the brain to the muscles of the body.
3. Interneurons - connect neurons into networks.
Term
Sensory neurons are to ______ neurons, as, motor neurons are to ______ neurons.
Definition
1. Afferent
2. Efferent
Term
Most of the neurons in the brain and spinal cord are what type?
Definition
Interneurons
Term
When touching a strong stimulus, like a stove, which neurons carry signals from the hand to the spinal cord?
Definition
Afferent neurons
Term
Which neurons carry signals from the brain and the spinal cord to the muscles?
Definition
Efferent neurons.
Term
What are the three structures of the neuron?
Definition
1. Cell body- manufactures the transmitter substance used by a neuron to communicate
2. Dendrites - neuron's antennae; recieve chemical signals
3. Axon - transmits chemical signals.
Term
What are two more structures of the neuron?
Definition
1. Myelin Sheath- the protective covering around axon made up of glial cells; protective covering made up of fatty cells. Other job is to help speed up transmission signals between neurons.
2. Synapse - junction of an axon terminal onto a dendrite or another axon - the synaptic cleft - the space between; communication between neurons happens here.
Term
Neuron communication is electrochemical, so therefore....
Activity w/in the neuron is ________.
Activity b/w the neurons is ________.
Definition
1. Electrical
2. Chemical
Term
What is polarization?
Definition
Occurs when there is balance between the +ve and -ve.
Term
What is Action Potential?
Definition
Occurs when the membrane becomes stimulated. Pores on the membrane open allowing the +ve charges to enter. The neuron is then depolarized. An electrical charge is sent down the axon. This last part is the action potential.
Term
What is the All or None Principal?
Definition
The neuron either has an action potential or it doesn't. They fire, or they don't.
Term
What is the Refractory Period?
Definition
A short period of time when things level out or get back to normal. A resting period when the neurons do not fire.
Term
The ____ ____ sweeps along the axon and causes the release of ___________.
Definition
1. Action potential
2. neurotransmitters
Term
What are neurotransmitters?
Definition
Chemicals that move across the synaptic space. They communicate with other neurons by binding to their receptors. (Electrical process begins again)
Term
What occurs after neurons communicate?
Definition
The reuptake. Neurotransmitter is taken back in by the neuron that released it. Whatever has not been used is taken back in.
Term
What are some neurotransmitters?
Definition
Dopamine, GABA, Serotonin, Acetylcholine, and Endorphins.
Term
What is psychopharmacology?
Definition
The study of how drugs affect behaviour.
Term
What are two effects of medications?
Definition
1. Agonists - act like neurotransmitters. Bind to and activate receptors.
2. Antagonists - block the reuptake of neurotransmitters so they are longer acting.
Term
What is the Peripheral Nervous System?
Definition
Carries infromation to and from the nervous system. Everything on the outside.
Term
What are the two parts that the PNS is divided into?
Definition
1. Somatic Nervous System - Consists of nerves that carry messages to skeletal muscles. Controls voluntary muscles; muscle movement -> we have control over the movements.
2. Autonomic Nervous System - consists of nerves that control involuntary function. Vital and automatic processes of the body. Such as breathing and your heart beating.
Term
What does ANS stand for? What is it divided into?
Definition
1. Autonomic Nervous System
2. a)Sympathetic Nervous System - becomes most active in emergency situations (fight or flight); increase in heartbeat, blood pressure, adrenaline rushes. Not normal occurences.
b)Parasympathetic Nervous System - Controls ongoing maintenance processes (Digestion); Puts things back together.
Term
What is the CNS or Central Nervous System?
Definition
Brain and Spinal cord - nerves. It is the main processing system for most information in the body.
Term
What are the three regions of the brain?
Definition
1. Hindbrain - Most primative division of the brain.
2. Midbrain - acts like a relay station; receives afferent signals in the brain and relays information to more complex parts of the brain.
3. Forebrain - Involved in complex sensory, emotional, cognitive and behavioural processes.
Term
What are the three structures of the Hindbrain?
Definition
1. Medulla - controls basic bodily functions; state of arousal
2. Pons - affect sleep and dreaming; connects medullar and cerebellum.
3. Cerebellum - influences balance, coordination and movement.
Term
What are the two structures of the midbrain?
Definition
1. Tectum - involved in vision and hearing.
2. Tegmentum - includes parts of the reticular formation; variety of functions which include movement.
Term
What are the three primary structures of the Forebrain?
Definition
1. Thalamus - processes sensory information as it arrives in the brain and transmits to other brain centres; all but smell sense
2. Hypothalmus - regulates many behaviours including eating and sleeping, to sexual activity and emotional expereience.
3. Cerebrum - Contains the basal ganglia and limbic system.
Term
What are the two parts of the Cerebrum?
Definition
1. Basal Ganglia - controls movement and posture
2. Limbic System - influences emotions and memory.
Term
What are the two parts of the Limbic system?
Definition
1. Hippocampus - involved in new learning; making or encoding longer term memories as well as retrieving the memories.
2. Amygdala - involved in emotional control; emotional memories
Term
What is the Cerebral Cortex?
Definition
The exterior covering of the brain.
Term
What are the four lobes?
Definition
1. Frontal lobe
2. Parietal Lobe
3. Occipital Lobe
4. Temporal Lobe
Term
What does the frontal lobe control?
Definition
Higher-order functioning. Examples are memory, planning, and paying attention, monitoring, organizing, and directing thought processes.
Term
What does the parietal lobe control?
Definition
Integrates visual input; monitors body's position in space
Term
What does the occipital lobe control?
Definition
Processes visual input; eye-hand coordination
Term
What does the temporal lobe control?
Definition
Important for language comprehension, memory function and social understanding.
Term
What are three techniques to study the brain?
Definition
1. Ablation
2. Monitoring neural activity
3. Neural imaging
Term
What does ablation involve?
Definition
Destroying neural tissue; changes in function are then monitored; ablation of the hypothalmus results in overeating or undereating
Term
What are three types of scans involved with Neural imaging?
Definition
1. CT scans
2. PET Scans
3. MRI Scans
Term
What does the left hemisphere of the brain involve?
Definition
Speech processing and language.
Term
What does the right hemisphere of the brain control?
Definition
Creative tasks, spatial tasks, and musical tasks.
Term
What is consciousness?
Definition
Awareness of oneself and the environment.
Term
What are biological rhythms?
Definition
A periodic, more or less regular fluctation in a biological system; may or may not have psychological implications.
Term
What is Entrainment?
Definition
Biological rhythms are synchronized with external events such as changes in clock time, temperature and daylight.
Term
What are Endogenous Biological Rhythms? What are three types?
Definition
Internal biological rhythms
1. Circadian Rhythms
2. Infradian Rhythms
3. Ultradian Rhythms
Term
When do circadian rhythms occur?
Definition
Occur about every 24 hours. An example is the sleep-wake cycle.
Term
When do Infradian Rhythms occur?
Definition
Occur less often than once a day. Examples are migrating birds and birds hibernating.
Term
When do Ultradian Rhythms occur?
Definition
Occur more frequently than once a day, about every 90 minutes. Examples are stomach contractions and hormone levels.
Term
How do you study Circadian Rhythms?
Definition
Isolate volunteers from time cues.
Term
What is internal desynchronization?
Definition
A state when biological rhythms are not in phase with one another.
Term
What can Circadian rhythms be influenced by?
Definition
Changes in routine. Such as airplane flights.
Term
Whatis SAD?
Definition
Seasonal Affective Disorder. A controversial disorder in which people experience depression during the winter and an improvement of mood in the spring. Can be treated through phototherapy or exposure to UV light.
Term
Why do we sleep?
Definition
Allows the body to eliminate waste products from muscles, repairing cells, strengthening the immune system, and to recover abilities lost during the day.
Term
Sleep deprivation leads to decrease in _______ and _______ functioning.
Definition
1. Physical
2. Mental
Term
What are the Realms of Sleep?
Definition
Stage One - Feel self drifting
Stage Two - Minor noises do not disturb
Stage Three - Breathin/Pulse has slowed
Stage Four - Deep sleep
REM - Increased eye movement, loss of muscle tone and dreaming.
Term
Who believed that dreams are unconscious wishes?
Definition
Sigmeud Freud. To understand a dream we must distinguish manifest content from latent content. Not everything in dreams is symbolic.
Term
What are ways Dreams are viewed?
Definition
1. Unconscious wishes
2. Efforts to deal with problems
3. By-product of mental housekeeping
4. Thinking
5. Interpreted Brain Activity
Term
What are psychoactive drugs?
Definition
Substances capable of influencing perception, mood, cognition, or behaviour.
Term
What are types of Psychoactive drugs?
Definition
1. Stimulants speed up activity in the CNS
2. Depressants slow down activity in the CNS
3. Opiates relieve pain
4. Psychedelic drugs disrupt normal thought processes
Term
How do psychoactive drugs work?
Definition
By acting on brain neurotransmitters.
1. Increase/Decrease the release of neurotransmitters.
2. Prevent reabsorption of excess neurotransmitters by the cells that have released them.
3. Block the effects of neurotransmitters on recieving cells
4. Bind to receptors that would ordinarily be triggered by a neurotransmitter or a neuromodulator.
Term
What do the reactions to psychoactive drugs depend on?
Definition
1. Physical factors - body weight, metabolism
2. Experience or number of times
3. Environmental factors (where&whom)
4. Mental set or expectations
Term
What is Hypnosis?
Definition
A procedure in which the practitioner suggests changes in the sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings or behaviour of the subject.
Term
What does hypnotic responsiveness depend on?
Definition
The person being hypnotized. People hypnotized cannot be forced to do things against their will.
Term
What are three facts about Hypnosis?
Definition
1. Doesn't increase accuracy of memory.
2. Doesn't produce a literal re-experiencing of long-ago events.
3. Used effectively for medical and psychological purposes.
Term
What are the two theories of Hypnosis?
Definition
Dissociation theory- A split in consciousness in which one part of the mind operates indepedently of the rest of the consciousness, or DURING hypnosis, dissociation occurs between an executive control system in the brain and other brain systems involved in thinking and acting.
2. Sociocognitive theory - effects of hypnosis result from interaction b/w social influence of the hypnotist (socio) and the abilities, beliefs and expectations of the subject (cognitive). Can explain alien abduction and past life regression.
Term
What is sensation?
Definition
The detection of physical energy emitted or reflected by physical objects.
It occurs when energy in the external environment or the body stimulates receptors in the sense organs.
Term
What is perception?
Definition
The process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory information.
Term
What is adaptation?
Definition
The reduction or disappearance of of sensory responsiveness when stimulation is unchanging or repetitious. Prevents us from having to continuously respond to unimportant information
Term
What is Deprivation?
Definition
The absence of normal levels of sensory stimulation.
Term
What is sensory overload? How can you reduce it?
Definition
1. Overstimulation of the senses.
2. Can use selective attention to reduce sensory overload.
Term
What is selective attention?
Definition
The focusing of attention on selected aspects of the environment and the blocking out of others.
Term
What is inattentional blindness?
Definition
Failure to consciously perceive something you are looking at because you are not attending to it.
Term
What is hue?
Definition
The visual experience specified by colour names and related to the wavelength of light
Term
What is brightness?
Definition
Lightness and luminance, the visual experience related to the amount of light emitted from or reflected by an object.
Term
What is saturation?
Definition
Vividness or purity of colour; the visual experience related to the complexity of light waves.
Term
What is visual perception?
Definition
Is the process by which an organism selects and interprets visual input so it acquires meaning. Uses sensory input, past events and current stimulation.
Term
How do you construct the visual world?
Definition
1. Form perception
2. Depth and distance perception
3. Visual constancies - when seeing IS believing
4. Visual illusions - when seeing IS misleading
Term
What does the Gestalt principles describe?
Definition
Describes the brain's organization of sensory building blocks into meaningful units and patterns.
Term
What is proximity?
Definition
Things close to one another are grouped together.
Term
What is closure?
Definition
The brain tends to fill in gaps to percieve complete forms.
Term
What is similarity?
Definition
Things that are alike are percieved together.
Term
What is continuity?
Definition
Seeing lines that connect 1 to 2. A string of items will indicate where the next item will be.
Term
What is common fate?
Definition
Items that move or change together will be perceived as a whole.
Term
What does depth perception allow?
Definition
Allows a person to estimate distance from an object, and the distance between objects.
Term
What is a monocular cue?
Definition
Do not depend on the use of both eyes
Term
What is a binocular cue?
Definition
Require the use of both eyes.
Term
What is an example of a monocular cue?
Definition
Motion parallax, kinetic depth effect, linear perspective, interposition, texture, highlighting and shadowing, and atmospheric perspective.
Term
What is accomodation? (Monocular cue)
Definition
The shape of the lens of the eye changes as distance to an object.
Term
What are types of binocular cues?
Definition
Retinal disparity, covergence.
Term
What is the Ames Room?
Definition
A specially built room that makes people seem to change size as they move around in it.
Term
What are visual constancies? Examples?
Definition
The accurate perception of objects as stable or unchanged despite changes in the sensory patterns they produce.
Size, shape, location, brightness, and colour constancy.
Term
What is size constancy?
Definition
The ability of the visual system to recognize a shape despite changes in its orientation or the angle from which it is viewed.
Term
What is colour constancy?
Definition
The way you percieve a colour depends on the surrounding colour illusions.
Term
What are illusions?
Definition
Perception of a physical stimulus differing from measurable reality.
Term
What are the three basic forms of learning?
Definition
1. Habituation
2. Cognitive Learning
3. Conditioning(Classical and Operant)
Term
How do we study learning?
Definition
Can be studied through experiments. Experiments can demonstrate cause/effect relationships. Researchers use both Human and Animal subjects. Researchers construct special mechanical devices for experiments.
Term
What are learning associations influenced by?
Definition
Frequency, Contiguity, and contingency.
Term
What is conditioning?
Definition
Systematic procedure through which associations and responses to specific stimuli are learned.
Term
What are stimulus?
Definition
An event that has an impact on an organism
Term
What are responses?
Definition
A reaction of an organism.
Term
What are unconditioned stimulus?
Definition
A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response without any form of learning.
Term
What is an unconditioned response?
Definition
A response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without any form of learning (Reflex)
Term
What is a neutral (Orienting) stimulus?
Definition
A stimulus that does not elicit the response of interest (the unconditioned response)
Term
What is a conditioned stimulus?
Definition
The stimulus which elicits a new response as a result of the conditioning process.
Term
What is a conditioned response?
Definition
A response to a previously neutral stimulus learned through associations?
Term
What are three stages of classical conditiong?
Definition
1. Before Conditioning
2. During Conditioning
3. After Conditioning
Term
What is extinction?
Definition
Disappearance of the conditioned response.
Term
What is spontaneous recovery?
Definition
Reoccurrence of a previously extinguished response.
Term
What are applications of classical conditioning?
Definition
1. Second-Order Conditioning - the conditioned stimulus is paired with a second neutral stimulus, which then comes to elicit the conditioned response.
2. Stimulus Generalization - similar stimuli produce the conditioned response. (Little Albert)
3. Stimulus Discrimination - response doesn't occur when stimuli are too different from conditioned stimuli (Discrimination traning)
4. Counter Conditioning - undesirable responses replaced with desirable ones (Case of Peter)
Term
What is systematic desensitization?
Definition
Reduction of phobias (Flooding)
Term
What are the two parts of Operant Conditioning?
Definition
1. Operant Behaviours - are spontaneouly emitted.
2. Operant Conditioning - occurs when behaviour is associated with its consequence (positive or negative)
Term
Who is a key figure of Operant Conditioning?
Definition
Thorndike and Skinner
Term
What is the Law of Effect?
Definition
Reward encourages useful responses and lack of reward discourages useless ones.
Term
What is the Skinner Box?
Definition
Contains a responding mechanism and delivers a consequence
Term
What is shaping?
Definition
Successive approximations of behaviour are rewarded until desired behaviour is reached.
Term
What are reinforcers?
Definition
Increase the probability that a behaviour will occur. It is a process.
Term
What is positive reinforcement?
Definition
Presentation of a pleasant stimulus.
Term
What is a negative reinforcement?
Definition
Removal of an aversive stimulus.
Term
What is a primary reinforcers?
Definition
Have survival value and do not need to be learned. Example: food and water
Term
What is a secondary reinforcer?
Definition
Initially neutral stimuli with no intrinsic value. Example: Money, good grades
Term
What is superstitious behaviour?
Definition
Accidental reinforcement leads to increased behaviour
Term
What is punishment?
Definition
The process by which a stimulus follows a response and reduces the frequency of a response.
Term
What is positive punishment?
Definition
An aversive stimulus is presented.
Term
What is negative punishment?
Definition
Pleasant stimulus is removed.
Term
What is a primary punisher?
Definition
A stimulus that is naturally painful or unpleasant. A shock or loud sounds.
Term
What is a secondary punisher?
Definition
A neutral stimulus that initially has no intrinsic negative value. Behaviour chart and secret signals.
Term
What is learned helplessness?
Definition
Giving up and not responding following inconsistent consequencing.
Term
What are the three key variables in operant conditioning?
Definition
1. Strength
2. Timing
3. Frequency - continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement
Term
What are four basic types of schedules?
Definition
1. Fixed Interval Schedule - reinforces the first response after a given amount of time has passed.
2. Variable Interval Schedule - reinforces first response, but amount of time varies.
3. Fixed Ratio Schedule - Reinforcement comes after a set number of responses.
4. Variable Ratio Schedule - Reinforces after a number of responses, but number varies.
Term
What is stimulus discrimination?
Definition
Reinforcement delivered only after the animal discriminates correctly.
Term
When does extinction occur in operant conditioning?
Definition
Occurs when behaviour is repeatedly not followed by a reinforcer.
Term
What is spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning?
Definition
Sudden reoccurrence.
Term
What is behavioural self regulation?
Definition
Assumes that people will engage in behaviours that seem optimal. An example is classroom behaviour management.
Term
Evolutionary theory is ________.
Definition
Largely biological
Term
Learning theory stress changes in organisms that occur due to ______ _____.
Definition
Life experiences
Term
Evolutionary theory accounts for _____ and ______ to promote survival.
Definition
1. Adaptation
2. Learning
Term
What did Donald Hebb believe?
Definition
1. Believed structure of brain changes with learning.
2. Temporary changes in neurons occur with initial exposure to new stimulus.
Term
What is consolidation?
Definition
Evolution of temporary changes in neurons into permanent circuits. It is the basis of learning and memory.
Term
What is insight?
Definition
Discoverig relationships between events. Kohler demonstrated insight in Chimpanzees.
Term
What is latent learning?
Definition
Non-visible learning that occurs w/o direct reinforcement. Tolman and his rats in the maze.
Term
What is observational learning?
Definition
Learing can occur w/o being reinforced. Organisms learn new responses by observing a model. This Albert Bandura with Bobo doll experiments.
Term
What are the variables in observational learning?
Definition
Type and power of the model. Learner's personality and degree of independence. Degree of uncertainty and situational cues.
Term
What is social psychology?
Definition
The scientific study of the influence of social processes on the way people think, feel and behave.
Term
What are the three key issues in social psychology?
Definition
1. Attitudes
2. Prejudice
3. Altrustic Behaviours
Term
What are attitudes?
Definition
Long-lasting patterns of feelings and beliefs about other people, ideas or objects.
Term
What are the three dimensions of an attitude?
Definition
1. Cognitive - thoughts and beliefs
2. Emotional - involves evaluative feelings
3. Behavioural - how beliefs and evaluative feelings are demonstrated via behaviour.
Term
What plays a prominent role in the formation of attitudes?
Definition
Learning
Term
Classical conditioning in attitude formation.
Definition
Suggests that negative evaluative feelings are associated with ideas.
Term
Operant conditioning in attitude formation.
Definition
Suggests that reinforced behaviours are likely to reoccur.
Term
Observational learning in attitude formation.
Definition
Suggests that people form attitudes via observing the attitudes of others (imitation)
Term
What are the four key factors in attitude change?
Definition
1. Communicator - communicator with integrity, credbility, and trustworthiness induce change.
2. Communication - clear, convincing and logical argument induces attitude change.
3. Medium: way the communication is presented affects receptiveness (Face-to-face)
4. Audience: age and intelligence influence attitude change.
Term
Who suggested the factors of attitude change?
Definition
Carl Hovland
Term
What is the elaboration likelihood model?
Definition
Knowing how to appeal to people requires figuing out the likelihood that they will think much about (elaborate on) the arguments.
Term
What are the two routes of attitude change?
Definition
1. Central route
2. Peripheral route
Term
What is the central route of attitude change?
Definition
Emphasis on message content. Relies on thoughtful, conscious consideration.
Term
What is the peripheral route?
Definition
Emphasis on more superficial, less carefl and more emotional evaluation of message.
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