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Psych Exam 2
vocab
122
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
02/29/2012

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Term
learning
Definition
a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience
Term
behaviorism
Definition
a theory of learning that occurs when we make a connection, or an association, between 2 events
Term
conditioning
Definition
the process of learning associations between two events
Term
observational learning
Definition
learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates another's behavior
Term
classical conditioning
Definition
learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capactiy to elicit a similar response
Term
reflexes
Definition
automatic stimulus-response connections
Term
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Definition
a stimulus that produces a reponse without prior learning (food)
Term
unconditioned response (UCR)
Definition
an unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the UCS; involuntary (salivating)
Term
conditioned stimulus (CS)
Definition
a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus (bell)
Term
cnditioned response
Definition
the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after the CS-UCS pairing; similar to, but not as strong as the UCR (salivating)
Term
acquisition
Definition
the initial learning of the connection between the UCS and the CS when these 2 stimuli are paired
Term
1. contiguity
2. contingency
Definition
2 important factors that must be present for acquisition to happen
Term
contiguity
Definition
the CS and UCS are presented very close together in time
Term
contingency
Definition
the CS must serve as a reliable stimulus that the UCS is on the way
Term
generalization (CC)
Definition
the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original CS to elicit a response that is similar to the CR
Term
discrimination(CC)
Definition
the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others
Term
extinction (CC)
Definition
the weakening of the CR when the UCS is absent
Term
spontaneous recovery
Definition
the process in classical conditioning by which a CR can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning
Term
renewal
Definition
the recovery of the CR when the organism is placed in a novel context
Term
Watson and Rayner
Definition
who performed the Little Albert Experiment?
Term
counterconditioning
Definition
a classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a CS and its CR
Term
aversive conditioning
Definition
a form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus
Term
immunosuppression
Definition
a decrease in the production of antibodies, which can lower a person's ability to fight disease
Term
sympathetic nervous system
Definition
what nervous system plays an important role in the learned associations between a conditioned stimulus and immune and endocrine functioning
Term
taste aversion
Definition
a special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea
Term
habituation
Definition
decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations
Term
overdoses usually happen because they take the drug in places of unusual circumstances, so there is no conditioned stimulus signal and the body is unprepared for the drug's effects
Definition
why do overdoses happen?
Term
cc for involuntary behaviors

oc for voluntary behaviors
Definition
Classical conditioning is for _________ behaviors, whereas operant conditioning is for _________ behaviors
Term
BF Skinner
Definition
Who defined operant conditiong?
Term
Pavlov
Definition
who first studied classical conditioning?
Term
operant conditioning / instrumental conditioning
Definition
a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurence
Term
law of effect
Definition
Thorndike's law stating that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened
Term
shaping
Definition
rewarding approximations of a desired behavior
Term
reinforcement
Definition
the process by which a rewarding stimulus or event (a reinforcer) following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again
Term
positive reinforcement
Definition
an increase in the frequency of a behavior in response to the subsequent presentation of something that is good
Term
negative reinforcement
Definition
an increase in the frequency of a behavior in response to the subsequent removal of something that is unpleasant
Term
avoidance learning
Definition
an organism's learning that it can altogether avoid a negative stimulus by making a particular response
Term
learned helplessness. studied by Seligman
Definition
an organism's learning through experience with unavoidable negative stimuli that it has no control over negative outcomes. Who studied this concept?
Term
primary reinforcer
Definition
a reinforcer that is innately satisfying; one that does not take any learning on the organism's part to make it pleasurable (food, water, sexual satisfaction)
Term
secondary reinforcer
Definition
a reinforcer that acquires its positive value through an organism's experience; a learned or conditioned reinforcer (getting an A, getting a paycheck)
Term
token economy
Definition
behaviors are rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged later for desired rewards
Term
generalization (OC)
Definition
performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation
Term
discrimination (OC)
Definition
responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced
Term
extinction (OC)
Definition
decreases in the frequency of a beavhior when the behavior is no longer reinforced
Term
continuous reinforcement
Definition
a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs
Term
partial reinforcement
Definition
a reinforcer follows a behavior only a portion of the time; characterizes most of life's experiences
Term
schedules of reinforcement
Definition
specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced
Term
fixed-ratio schedule
Definition
reinforces a behavior after a set number of performance of that behavior
Term
variable-ratio schedul
Definition
a time table in which behaviors are rewarded an average number of times but on an unpredictable basis (most resistant to extinction)
Term
fixed-interval schedule
Definition
reinforces the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has elapsed
Term
variable-interval schedule
Definition
a time table in which a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed
Term
punishment
Definition
a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur
Term
positive punishment
Definition
the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior (spanking, scolding)
Term
negative punishment
Definition
the removal of a positive stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior (time-out, grounding)
Term
applied behavior analysis
Definition
also called behavior modification, the use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior
Term
observational learning
Definition
also called imitation or modeling; learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior
Term
Bandura and the Bobo Doll study
Definition
who studied observational learning? what was his study called?
Term
1. attention
2. retention
3. motor reproduction
4. reinforcement
Definition
four main processes involved in observational learning
Term
EC Tolman
Definition
who said that much of behavior is goal-directed (purposive behavior)
Term
latent learning / implicit learning
Definition
unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior
Term
insight learning
Definition
a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem's solution
Term
instinctive drift
Definition
the tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning
Term
preparedness
Definition
the species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others
Term
-influences the degree to which learning processes are used
-culture can determine the content of learning
Definition
how culture influences learning... two things
Term
mindset
Definition
the way our beliefs about ability dictate what goals we set for ourselves (fixed vs. growth _____)
Term
mneomists
Definition
people who have astonishing memory abilities
Term
memory
Definition
the retention of information or experience over time as the result of three key processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval
Term
encoding
Definition
the first step in memory; the process by which information gets into memory storage
Term
-attention
-levels of processing
-elaboration
-imagery
Definition
processes the require effort (4)
Term
selective attention
Definition
focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others
Term
divided attention
Definition
concentrating on more than one activity at the same time
Term
sustained attention
Definition
also called vigilance, the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time
Term
levels of processing
Definition
a continuum of memory processing from shallow to intermediate to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory
Term
elaboration
Definition
the formation of different connections around a stimulus at a given level of memory encoding
Term
self-reference
Definition
relating material to your own experience
Term
storage
Definition
the retention of information over time and how this information is represented in memory
Term
Atkinson-Shiffin theory
Definition
theory stating that memory storage involves 3 separate systems:
1) sensory memory
2) short-term memory
3) long-term memory
Term
sensory memory
Definition
time frames of a fraction of a second to several seconds
Term
short-term memory
Definition
time frames up to 30 seconds
Term
long-term memory
Definition
time frames up to a lifetime
Term
sensory memory
Definition
memory system that involves holding information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other senses
Term
echoic memory
Definition
auditory sensory memory (retained for up to several seconds)
Term
iconic memory
Definition
visual sensory memory (retained for about 1/4 of a second)
Term
short-term memory
Definition
limited capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for as long as 30 seconds unless we use strategies to retain it longer
Term
7 plus or minus 2
Definition
magical rule of ______
Term
memory span
Definition
the number of digits an individual can report back in order after a single presentation of them
Term
chunking
Definition
grouping information that exceeds the 7 plus or minus 2 memory span into higher-order units that can be remembered as single units
Term
rehearsal
Definition
the conscious repetition of information
Term
workin memory
Definition
a three-part system that allows us to hold information temporarily as we perform cognitive tasks; a kind of mental workbench on which the brain manipulates and assembles information to help us understand, make decisions, and solve problems
Term
1. the phonological loop
2. visuospatial working memory
3. central executive
Definition
3 components to Baddeley's working memory model
Term
the phonological loop
Definition
briefly stores speech-based information about the sounds of language; contains an acoustic code and rehearsal
Term
visuospatial working memory
Definition
stores visual and spatial information, including visual imagery
Term
central executive
Definition
integrates information from not only the phonological loop and visuospatial working memory but also from long-term memory (attention, planning, organizing)
Term
long-term memory
Definition
a relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time
Term
explicit memory / declarative memory
Definition
the conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events and, at least in humans, information that can be verbally communicated
Term
episodic memory
Definition
the retention of information about the where, when, and what of life's happenings -- that is, how individuals remember life's episodes (autobiographical)
Term
semantic memory
Definition
a person's knowledge about the world, including his or her areas of expertise; general knowledge, such as of things learned in school; and everyday knowledge
Term
implicit memory / nondeclarative memory
Definition
memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience
Term
procedural memory
Definition
memory for skills (typing, driving)
Term
priming
Definition
the activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember new information better and faster
Term
1 schemas
2 connectionist networks
Definition
how memory is organized (2 ways)
Term
schema
Definition
a preexisting mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret information. __________ from prior encounters with the environment influence the way we encode, make inferences about, and retrieve information
Term
script
Definition
a schema for an event, often containing information about physical features, people, and typical occurences
Term
connectionism / parallel distributed processing (PDP)
Definition
the theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons, several of which may work together to process a single memory
Term
long-term potentiation
Definition
if 2 neurons are activated at the same time, the connection between them -- and thus the memory -- may be strengthened
Term
retrieval
Definition
the memory process that occurs when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage
Term
serial position effect
Definition
the tendency to recall the items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle (primacy and recency effects)
Term
encoding specificity principle
Definition
states that information present at the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as a retrieval code
Term
autobiographical memory
Definition
a special form of episodic memory, consisting of a person's recollections of his or her life experiences
Term
reminiscence bump
Definition
the effect that adults remember more events from the second and third decades of life than from other decades
Term
flashbulb memory
Definition
the memory of emotionally significant events that people often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery than everyday events
Term
motivated forgetting
Definition
forgetting that occurs when something is so painful or anxiety-laden that remember it is intolerable
Term
interference theory
Definition
the theory that people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember
Term
proactive interference
Definition
situation in which material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material that was learned later
Term
retroactive interference
Definition
situation in which material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier
Term
decay theory
Definition
theory stating that when we learn something new, a neurochemical memory trace forms, but over time this trace disintegrates; suggests that the passage of time always increases forgetting
Term
tip-of-the tongue (TOT) phenomenon
Definition
a type of effortful retrieval that occurs when we are confident that we know something but cannot quite pull it put of memory
Term
retrospective memory
Definition
remembering information from the past
Term
prospective memory
Definition
remembering information about doing something in the future; includes memory for intentions
Term
amnesia
Definition
the loss of memory
Term
retrograde amnesia
Definition
memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events
Term
anterograde amnesia
Definition
a memory disorder that affects the retention of new information and events
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