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Psy 260 Learning and Memory
final review
45
Psychology
Undergraduate 2
05/05/2011

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Term
How can you tell learning has occurred if you can't ask the animal?
Definition
If you see a change in behavior that is a function of experience
Term
Why is learning important?
Definition
It is important for survival. It allows an individual to change its behavior as a result of experience. So, as conditions change the individual can adapt.
Term
Who can learn?
Definition
Every animal tested (perhaps excepting single celled organisms) can change their behavior with experience.
Term
What is non-associative learning?
Definition
Learning to ignore (habituation) or pay attention (sensitization) to one stimulus as the result of experience.
Term
Compare and contrast habituation from sensitization.
Definition
Habituation and sensitization are forms of learning involving learning about ONE stimulus.

Habituation is where the organism learns to ignore a single stimulus because it is irrelevant. The individual comes to decrease its natural response to a single stimulus. Habituation activates the S-R system: the response is contingent on the presence of the simulus. Ex: a snail comes to decreae the strength of its retraction (into the shell) behavior with experience of a single benign stimulus (touch eye stalk).

Sensitization: is where the organism learns to pay attention to a single stimulus because it is important. The individual comes to increase its natural response to a single stimulus. Sensitiation activate the state system (fight or flight). So, the cascade of chimicals that are excreted need time to metabolize. So, if the stimulus is presented before final metabolizm the response strngth increases. Ex: a snail comes to increase the strnght of its retraction behavior with each aversive poke in the eye stalk.
Term
Associative learning
Definition
An organism comes to associate two or more stimuli, events or responses as a function of experience. In CC: it associates the CS with the US. In IC it associates the Sd with the R with the Sr or Sp.
Term
What is procedure?
Definition
the steps required; how it happens
Term
What is process?
Definition
What's going on. Ex: process of acquisition is the strengthening of associations. Ex: process of extinction is the weakeining of associations
Term
What is process?
Definition
What's going on. Ex: process of acquisition is the strengthening of associations. Ex: process of extinction is the weakeining of associations
Term
Classical Conditioning
Definition
the associative learning mechanism whereby an organism learns to associate stimuli because they have contiguity; the CS usually predicts the coming of the US
Term
Instrumental Conditioning
Definition
the associative learning mechanism where the organism learns to behave in the presence of a stimulus in order to get or remove a stimulus or event. The consequence (Sr or Sp) is contingent on the R
Term
What is the process of CC versus IC?
Definition
CC: Process: the strengthening of the association between CS and US (most common association formed)

IC: Process: the strengthening of the association between R & Sr or Sp (or Sd, R and Sr/Sp)

Extinction:
CC:Procedure: following acquisition, no longer give the US following the CS. The result is that the CR decreased in strength.

IC: Procedure: following acquisition, no longer give or remove the Sr/Sp following the R. The result is that the R decreases.

CC: Process: The weakening of the association between the Sd:R and consequence
Term
What is associated most of the time in CC and IC?
Definition
CC: CS and US

IC: Sd, R, Sr, Sp
Term
What must the animal do to learn the association in CC and IC?
Definition
CC: Be alive and able to perceive the stimuli

IC: they must do the R to learn the associations
Term
Is the model one of contingency or contiguity? CC and IC
Definition
CC: contiguity (though contingency makes for faster learning. US follows CS most of the time)

IC: contingency: Sr or Sp in contingent on R
Term
What does the individual learn in CC and IC?
Definition
CC: that the CS predicts the US or that the CS is related to the US

IC: that behavior results in consequence
Term
How does one learn to discriminate or generalize in both models (CC vs IC)?
Definition
CC discrimination: CS1-US1 and CS2-UR2
CC generalization: CS1-US1 and CS2-US1

IC discrimination: Sd1:R>Sr1 and Sd2:R2>Sr2

IC: generalization: Sd1:R1>Sr1 and Sd2:R2>Sr1
Term
Why is each mechanism (CC & IC) important for survival?
Definition
CC: allows the animal to learn that important events and stimuli can be predicted by stimuli that preced them...so they can come to expect or predict the coming of important stimuli or events.

IC: the individual can learn to change its behavior in order to get or remove stimuli.
Term
Compare and contrast blocking with overshadowing with latent inhibition
Definition
Comparison: all three are limitations to learning

Contrast: define each...

Overshadowing: The most salient member of a compound stimulus is more readily conditioned as the CS and thereby interferes with conditioning of the less salient member.

Blocking: The presence of an established CS interferes with conditioning of a new CS when used in a new compound.

Latent inhibition: A familiar stimulus is more difficult to condition as a CS than an unfamiliar (novel) one.
Term
Compare and contrast the temporal arrangement of stimuli in CC: describe each one and know each arrangements effect on conditioning (learning).
Definition
5 Common CC Procedures:
Short Delay: CS _--__
US __--_

Trace: CS _-__
US ___-_

Long-delay: CS _----___
US ____--__

Simultaneous: CS __-__
US __-__

Backward CS ___-__
US _-____
Term
Compare and contrast excitatory with inhibitory classical conditioning
Definition
Excitatory: presence of the CS predicts the appearance of the US

Inhibitory: presence of the CS predicts the absence of the US
Term
Compare and contrast schedules of reinforcement
Definition
Continuous: Sr happens after every R

Intermittent: Sr happens most of the time following R

Ratio: # of responses

Interval: time

Fixed: a set number of responses or time goes by before the Sr appears

Variable: an unknown or unpredictable (average in lab) # of responses or amount of time goes by before the Sr comes
Term
What is social learning?
Definition
Individuals in a social species learn by simply observing the behavior of others.
Term
What are non-cognitive forms of social learning?
Definition
Stimulus enhancement: The probability of an animal approaching or contacting something in the environment is increased by seeing an individual of its species interacting with it.

Response facilitation: Behavior is contagious! A kind of social effect that selectively enhances responses.

Emulation: An animal's goals might be influenced by watching another animal's actions.
Term
What is the congnitive form of social learning?
Definition
Imitation:individual (observer) intends to reproduce the actions of another (the model).
Term
Which sorts of species learn socially?
Definition
Social ones
Term
What did Bandura find in his classic experiment involving Bobo dolls?
Definition
He suggested that individuals learn aggression by watching a model. Attention, retention, reproduction and motivation are the important processes involved.
Term
What is complex learning?
Definition
Complex learning involves mind process: problem solving, insight, reason...
Term
What does complex learning allow us to do?
Definition
Complex learning allows the individual to solve problems in their head without having to do so via simple learning.
Term
Which species are suspected on having complex learning?
Definition
All big brained mammals: apes, humans, whales, elephants
Term
How can you tell complex learning from the simpler forms (non-associative, associative, non-cognitive, social learning)?
Definition
Non-associative: 1 stimulus; animals learns to ignore or attend to it. Takes trials... get a learning curve!

Associative: more than 1 stimulus: individual changes their behavior either because one thing predicts another; or as a result of the consequence... takes trials... get a learning curve!

Social learning: individual changes their behavior by just observing another doing the behavior. Can take trials! (especially if it involves skills: intrumental trials)
Term
What is a theory of mind?
Definition
An individual knows that another individual has a mind and with it: mental processes. Here the individual knows that another can...think, believe, understand...same or different from them.
Term
Which animals appear to have a theory of mind?
Definition
All big brained mammals: apes, humans, whales, elephants.
Term
How early do human infants behave as if they understand the intentions of others?
Definition
By 6 months (Karen Wynne at Yale University)
Term
What is causal agency?
Definition
Causal agency is the knowledge that someone else can do things for us.
Term
Which animals act as if they understand causal agency?
Definition
All big brained mammals: apes, humans, whales, elephants.
Term
What was the false-belief task and what does it reveal about the cognitive abilities of 3 versus 4 year old humans?
Definition
False-belief task: the 2 puppets kid know that the ball has moved from one container to another (and only one puppet knows this too)...

The idea here is that between 3 and 4 (in humans) children are able to imagine the intentions... of another (even if they are different from their own).
Term
If 4 year old chimpanzees can use a model to find something hidden in a real room then this is an example of ___?
Definition
Mind processes: here, the chimp is in possession of mental representations, memory of location, and is able to mentally manipulate the information in the model for use in the real world.
Term
If the behavior is present in all normal individuals within a species and is relatively unchangeable for their whole life...
Definition
then the behavior is innate
Term
If the behavior is present in some members of a species and is based on experiences then the behavior is
Definition
learned
Term
If the animals learns to ignore or attent to a single stimulus then it is
Definition
non-associative learning
Term
If the behavior involoves CC or IC then we consider it
Definition
simple learning
Term
If the behavior involves cognition (thinking, planning, believing, knowing, and understanding, i.e. theory of mind processes) then this is
Definition
complex learning
Term
If the behavior is learned from others simply by watching them do something, then it involves
Definition
social learning
Term
Some animals can learn to different things at the same time using different learning mechanisms.

For example, if a kindergartener wants to please her teacher by practicing her letters
Definition
then she is using social learning, IC and cognition.

Social learning: she is learning via social means because she observes her teacher or the other students doing the behavior and reproduces it.

IC: because she must use trial and error to perfect the skill.

Cognition: because she has learned that her teacher wants her to learn this skill and that teachers are important models of behavior (cognition: via imitation)
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