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PHYSIOLOGY FINAL
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282
Physiology
Undergraduate 4
12/08/2011

Additional Physiology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
What is physiology?
Definition
The study of how the body functions.
Term
Which two organ systems of the body are most directly in control of overall function?
Definition
nervous and endocrine system
Term
What is homeostasis?
Definition
ability to maintain stable internal environment
Term
What kind of feedback control they try to return a variable to it original state?
Definition
Negative feedback control
Term
What is an example of negative feedback control?
Definition
Insulin increases when high blood glucose levels, so blood glucose goes back to normal.
Term
What feedback control furthers changes in a variable once a change is initiated?
Definition
positive feedback control
Term
What is an example of positive feedback control?
Definition
having a baby. uterine contractions and pressure on cervix keep increasing oxytocin.
Term
What is more common, negative or positive feedback control?
Definition
negative feedback control
Term
What are molecules?
Definition
atoms joined by chemical bonds
Term
What is the difference between an anion and a cation?
Definition
anion is negative charged. cation is positive charged.
Term
What's the difference between solute and solvent?
Definition
You dissolve the solute in solvent. (IE salt in water)
Term
Describe hydrophillic, hydrophobic and amphipathic.
Definition
hyrdophillic likes water, polarized.
hydrophobic doesn't like water, non-polar.
amphipathic has both polar and non-polar ends on the same molecule.
Term
What are the four main classes of organic molecules?
Definition
1.carbs
2.lipids
3.protein
4.nucleic acid
Term
What are monosaccardies and what are they used for?
Definition
sugar, used for energy, are polar.
Term
Where do you find polysaccarides?
Definition
*animals- glycogen liver and skeletal muscles
*plants - cellulose (structure)
- starch (storage)
Term
Which kind of lipid circulates in the bloodstream as an Energy (E) source?
Definition
triglycerides
Term
What are the three functions of cholesterol?
Definition
1.percursor for steroid hormones
2.part of plasma membrane
3.circulate as HDL and LDL
Term
What is difference between HDL and LDL cholesterol?
Definition
LDL is bad. HDL is good - sweeps up cholesterol. exercising increases HDL.
Term
Which biological compound is the most versatile and structurally diverse?
Definition
protein
Term
How many amino acids are there? How do you distinguish one group from another.
Definition
20. The "R" group identifies them.
Term
What are the three shapes a protein can have?
Definition
1.globular (compact)
2.fiborules (elongated)
3. mixed
Term
What are the two types of nucleic acids?
Definition
DNA (dioxyribose nucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
Term
What is a nucelic acid made of?
Definition
sugar (deoxyribose or just ribose), base, phospate
Term
What four types of bases react with each other to form the DNA helix?
Definition
cytosine and guanine. thymine and adenine.
Term
What are the four general points of Cell Theory?
Definition
1.All organisms are made up of cells
2.new cells come from existing cells
3.all cells function the same way
4.cell cooperate together to create functions
Term
What is the cell boundry? Regulates entry/exit.
Definition
plasma membrane
Term
membrane limited site of storage and functions for DNA are carried out?
Definition
nucleus
Term
The cytoplasm with solutes in it in cell?
Definition
cytosol
Term
The site of ATP synthesis?
Definition
mitochondria
Term
What is ATP made of?
Definition
adenosine + 3 phosphates
Term
Where does protein synthesis take place?
Where are these structures located
Definition
ribosomes. some in cytosol, some attached to ER.
Term
What is the difference between granilar(rough) and agranilar(smooth) ER?
Definition
rough ER: has ribosomes
smooth ER: fatty acid synthesis and calcium storage
Term
What does the Golgi apparatus do?
Definition
Where proteins are processed and stored in secretory grancices
Term
What does the cytoskeleton do?
Definition
maintain cells shape
Term
What are two functions of DNA?
Definition
1. Replication for cell division
2. template for mRNA synthesis and codes for amino acids.
Term
What does it mean the plasma membrane has a phosopholipid bilayer?
Definition
Double layer of lipids. Hydrophillic heads face out and hydrophobic tails face each other. Very stable.
Term
What is cholesterol's level in the plasma membrane?
Definition
To stablilze bilayer
Term
What is the difference between integral and peripheral membrane protein on the plasma membrane?
Definition
Integral runs all the way through membrane, peripheral is either outer/inner surface.
Term
What is diffusion?
Definition
random thermal motion moves solutes from area of high to low concentration
Term
Diffusion time is proportional to distance squared. This means?
Definition
The farther apart cells are, the longer it takes to diffuse.
Term
What kind of solutes diffuse fastest?
Definition
smaller, non-polarized ones.
Term
How does temperature relate to diffusion?
Definition
Higher the temp, higher the rate of diffusion.
Term
What is simple diffusion?
Definition
solutes directly cross membrane.
Term
What is facilitated diffusion?
Definition
How polar and charged solutes move through channels in membrane.
Term
Channels that move ions are gated and respond to what kind of stimuli?
Definition
stretch, light, chemicals, pressure,voltage
Term
What is active transport?
Definition
Solute is moved against is concentration gradient using energy (ATP).
Term
What does the Na+/K+ ATPase pump do?
Definition
For every ATP used, 3 Na+ are moved out and 2K+ are moved into cell.
Term
What does the Ca2+ (calcium) pump do?
Definition
Moves 2 calciums out of cell for every ATP used. Low calcium inside cell.
Term
What is the difference between osmotic and tonicity?
Definition
osmotic - concentration of solutes
tonicity - effect of those solutes on cell volume
Term
Explain isotonic, hyper and hypotonic.
Definition
Isotonic is equalibrium, no effect on cell volume.
Hypertonic is the concentration outside the cell is greater, so the cell shrinks.
Hypotonic is concentration is less so the cell swells.
Term
What is an electrical potential?
Definition
the driving force for a current, created by a separation of charges.
Term
What are determines resting membrane potential?
Definition
Ionic concentrations difference across cell and cell's permeability to different ions.
Term
Cell membrane is 10-70x more permeable to K than Na+ at resting potential. What helps establish Em?
Definition
The Na+/K+ ATPase pump.
Term
How is the resting membrane potential established?
Definition
The moving of K+ down its concentration gradient out of the cell, so the inside of the cell is negative compared to outside.
Term
What is a threshold potential?
Definition
Voltage at which it changes the membrane permeability properties because it opens certain gated channels.
Term
What are the three phases of an action potential and what do they do?
Definition
1.depolarization - equilibrium potential (Em)approaches ENa+ caused by increase in Na+.
2.Repolarization - Em returns toward EK+ because cell decreases permeability to Na+ and increases to K+.
3. Hyperpolarization - when Em is more negative than usual because activation of voltage gated channels for K+.
Term
True or False? Once an action potential is reaches it threshold, its "all-or-none".
Definition
True
Term
What are refractory periods?
Definition
When the membrane is less sensitive to depolarizing stimuli.
Term
What is the difference between absolute and relative refractory period?
Definition
absolute - no action potential capability no matter how strong the stimuli (Na+ channels not reset or already open)
relative- need increased stimulus to overcome hyperpolarization (increased K+)
Term
List the organization of nervous system.
Definition
CNS and PNS. Under PNS, afferent and efferent. Under afferent, somatic and visceral. Under efferent, somatic and autonomic. Under autonomic, para and sympathetic.
Term
What is the difference between afferent and efferent.
Definition
Afferent is incoming info, efferent is going out info.
Term
What is the difference between sensory and visceral inputs under afferent divsion of PNS?
Definition
Sensory- classic 5 senses, aware
visceral - not aware: bp, ph, Co2 levels...
Term
What is the difference between somatic and autonomic?
Definition
somatic - innervates skeletal muscles
autonomic - innervates cardiac and smooth muscles.
Term
What is the irregularly shaped part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and organelles?
Definition
cell body
Term
What are branched extensions of cell body that receive input?
Definition
dendrites
Term
What is another name for the axon hillock, where the axon begins?
Definition
initial segment
Term
Where is action potential propogated along in a neuron?
Definition
axon
Term
What is the site of neurotransmitter storage and release in a neuron?
Definition
nerve terminal
Term
What determines how fast an action potential is carried along an axon?
Definition
The bigger the axon diameter and more myelinated, the faster.
Term
What is the difference between chemical and electrical synapses?
Definition
Chemical - unidirectional, synaptic cleft, NT, takes a little time.
Electrical - bidirectional, no synaptic cleft, no NTs, fast!, rare in NS but common in endocrine glands, cardiac muscle, etc.
Term
What are the three ways NT (neurotransmitters) are cleared in chemical synapses?
Definition
1. reuptake by pre-synaptic cell
2. diffuse away
3.enzymatic breakdown
Term
What kind of NT does the neruomuscular junction release to the motor end plate?
Definition
ACH
Term
What is the difference between EPSP and IPSP (excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potential)?
Definition
One EPSP stimulus moves membrane potential toward threshold, but can't quite reach it; need multiple to. IPSP same concept just move membrane potential away from threshold.
Term
What is the difference between temporal and spatial summation?
Definition
temporal- same input for multiple times.
spatial- inputs to different parts of neuron
Term
What are the three functions of muscle?
Definition
1.force and movement
2.regulation of organs and organ system
3.communication
Term
What are the three types of muscle tissue?
Definition
1.skeletal
2.smooth
3.cardiac
Term
Which 2 out of three muscle tissues are striated?
Definition
cardiac and skeletal
Term
What is skeletal muscle attached to bone by?
Definition
tendons
Term
What innervates skeletal muscle? Voluntary or involuntary?
Definition
alpha motor neurons of somatic NS. voluntary.
Term
What is smooth muscle used for?
Definition
Forms hollow organs such as bladder, blood vessels, etc.
Term
What innervates smooth muscle?
Definition
autonomic N, - may have pacemakers
Term
What is cardiac muscle innervated by?
Definition
autonomic nervous system, but heart has built in pacemakers.
Term
What is the connective tissue that surrounds the muscle belly?
Definition
fascia
Term
How is skeletal muscle structured?
Definition
muscle - muscle fibers - myofibrils - sarcomere - thick and thin filaments.
Term

[image]

Where is the H(M) band, A band and I band?

Definition

H(M) band is the gap btween actin.

The I band is gap from myosin to z-line.

The A band is the length of one whole actin.

 

Term
What is the smallest functional unit of muscle?
Definition
sarcomere
Term
What is the sliding filament theory?
Definition
Distance between z-lines, H(M) and I band shorten and A band stays the same when contracting. The thick and thin filament slide past each other.
Term
What is cross-bridge cycling?
Definition
The globular head groups of myosin (thick filament) bind to binding site on actin (thin filament) using ATP. ADP one head and Phospate on other.
Term
How does calcium play a role in skeletal muscle contractions?
Definition
Calcium binds to troponin, which removes tropomyosin blocking the binding sites for the globular heads on actin. As long as calcium is high, cross bridge cycles form.
Term
What release and reuptakes calcium in skeletal muscle cells back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum?
Definition
release - action potential moving along t-tubules
reuptake - Ca2+ ATPase on SR
Term
What is a motor unit?
Definition
The muscle neuron and the muscles fibers it innervates.
Term
What is the difference between quantal summation (recruitment) and temporal summation (tetanic)?
Definition
quantal - the stronger the stimulus, the more fiber thresholds it reaches and therefore recruits.
temporal- repeated stimulation so force is constant. Due to increase of calcium, which causes more cross-bridges.
Term
What is the optimal length-tension relationship for skeletal muscles?
Definition
When thick and thin filaments overlap. If the thin or thick filament start overlapping EACH other or they are stretched too far apart to make cross-bridges, force decreases.
Term
What are the three skeletal muscle types?
Definition
1. Type I (slow-oxidative): slow to contract or fatigue
2. Type IIa (fast-oxidative): intermediate
3. Type IIb (fast-glycotic):fast to contract and fatigue
Term
There are no z-lines in smooth muscle but dense bodies anchor thin filaments. The cells are connected by collagen. Sometimes the cells are connected by what?
Definition
gap junctions - electric signaling
Term
What is the function of smooth muscle in terms of the hollow organs it makes up (ie blood vessels, GI tract, etc)?
Definition
to change volume within organ to move contents along
Term
How does skeletal and smooth muscle length-tension reltaionships differ? Why?
Definition
Smooth can be stretched 3-4x longer than skeletal and still exert near max force. This is because smooth muscle has longer and more actin fibers than skeletal.
Term
Which forms cross-bridges faster: skeletal or smooth?
Definition
skeletal! skeletal is 100msec and smooth is 2-3 secs. smooth muscle has lower myosin ATPase activity, so it forms cross-bridges more slowly.
Term
How does smooth muscle contractions occur? (hint: mutli-step process).
Definition
Increase in calcium in cytosol combines with calmobulin to form Ca2+-calmobulin complex. This combines with myosin light chain kinase (inactive) to form active MLCK. This attaches to an inactive myosin head to create phosphorylated myosin that binds to actin.
Term
How does the latch state occur in smooth muscle contractions?
Definition
When the phosphate is removed from the myosin, but the myosin is still attached to actin. It produces force with little cross-bridge cycling.
Term
How is calcium released and reuptaked in smooth muscles?
Definition
released - influx of calcium into cell from outside cell, causes calcium in SR to release calcium.
reuptake - taken up by SR and pumped out of cell by Ca2+ ATPase pump.
Term
What is the difference between single and multi-unit smooth muscle?
Definition
Single-unit: uses gap junctions, temporal summation.
Mulit-unit: uses quantal summation, mechanically coupled via collagen
Term
What is the difference between grey and white matter?
Definition
grey: unmyelinated neurons
white: myelinated neurons that run in tracts
Term
What is the difference between dorsal and ventral roots?
Definition
Dorsal: afferent neurons come into spinal cord
ventral: efferent neurons leave spinal cord
Term
Interneurons are unmyelinated and afferent/efferent neurons are. T or F?
Definition
True
Term
Cell bodies for afferent neurons are located in dorsal root ganglion and not involved in electrical stimulation.
Definition
Inter and efferent neurons carry electrical information.
*FREEBIE CARD*
Term
What are the three layer that make us the meninges surrounding the spinal cord?
Definition
outside to inside: (bone on the very outside) pia mater > arachnoid > dura mater.
Term
What is in the arachnoid space of the meninges?
Definition
blood vessels and cerebrospinal fluid
Term
What are the two classifications of reflexes?
Definition
1.suprasegmental - involves brain
2.segmental - mediated via spinal cord (can be aware of it)
Term
What is a stretch reflex? Example?
Definition
example: knee jerk
end of muscles of have muscle spindle receptor that respond to stretch on it or change in length.
Term
What is reciprocal innervation?
Definition
opposing muscles are oppositely effected.
Term
A reflex arc for stretch reflex is monosynaptic. This means it doesn't have an internueron, it just goes straight from afferent to efferent. T OR F?
Definition
true
Term
What is the function of inhibitory stretch reflex? What signals for it?
Definition
The receptor is the golgi tendon organ, which helps prevents muscles from tearing by exerting too much force. It shuts down the muscle. Is polysynaptic.
Term
What is the function of withdrawl/flexor reflex? what signals it?
Definition
pain or tissue damage signals it and it is meant to remove limb away from pain.
Term
What is the function of cross-extensor reflex?
Definition
used to maintain posture and used in repetitive movements. *Think about stepping on something sharp, quads contract on hurt foot side and hams contract on opposite side.*
Term
How is motor neuron "silented" so it won't respond.
Definition
hyperpolarized
Term
What are neural systems that detect an environmental change and mediate an awareness of that change?
Definition
senses
Term
What is the difference between general and specific senses?
Definition
general: widely spread through body (ie touch)
specific: located in head (smell, vision)
Term
What is the difference between a simple and compound sensory receptors?
Definition
simple: stimulus directly touches sensory neuron (ie touch)
compound: receptor cell is separate from sensory neuron and releases NT's. (ie taste)
Term
Describe what the funtions of sensory receptors are.
Definition
1. discriminator: respond to a specific energy level
2.transducer - convert energy of stimulus into electrical energy in neurons via ion channels
Term
Describe the stimulus and sensation that comes from mechanoreceptor, thermoreceptor, chemoreceptor, photoreceptor and nociceptor?
Definition
mechanoreceptor: change in membrane,. touch, hearing, motion.
thermoreceptor: temp. heat/cold. chemoreceptor: dissolved chems. taste/smell.
photoreceptor:light wavelengths. vision nociceptor: cell damage. pain.
Term
How do a sensory unit and receptive field relate?
Definition
sensory unit is the sensory neuron and all it receptors. Receptive field is part of body that is innervated by sensory unit.
Term
What is the sensory neuron pathway? 3 neurons.
Definition
first neuron goes form sensory unit to brainstem. second goes to thalamus. third goes to sensory cortex that relates with stimulus (i.e. visual cortex, etc)
Term
T OR F? the frequency of action potentials is proportional to intensity of stimulus?
Definition
True.
Term
What are the 4 determinants of sensory activity?
Definition
1.receptive field overlap
2.receptive field size
3.convergence
4.lateral inhibition
Term
T OR F? the larger the receptive field the better the acuity?
Definition
false. smaller the more acute.
Term
Overlap of receptive field increases acutiy. T OR F?
Definition
True.
Term
T OR F? Higher convergence equals higher acuity?
Definition
False. If many receptive field converge on one cortical cell, it will distinguish many stimulus as one.
Term
What is lateral inhibition as related to sensory receptors?
Definition
The greater the stimulus on receptive field, the greater effect it has over inhibiting neighboring receptive fields so that the stimulus can be more accurately pinpointed.
Term
What is the difference between tonic and phasic receptors?
Definition
Tonic: adapts slowly and incompletely, so its continous
phasic: adapts quickly and completely, so response is instant
Term
What are the 5 modalities of the tongue?
Definition
1.sweet (sugars)
2.sour(acids)
3.salty (Na+ salts)
4.bitter (toxins)
5.limami (gluthamates)
Term
Where is the olfactory cortex located?
Definition
limbic system
Term
Where are the olfactory sensory neurons located?
Definition
olfactory epithelium at top of nasal cavity
Term
What is the number of neurons in the olfactory neuron pathway?
Definition
2
Term
What are the three layers of the eyes and basic functions?
Definition
1.sclera (white of eye) and cornea
2.choroid (vascular, pigmented,absorbs light)
3.retina (sensory component with photoreptors)
Term
What is the fovea centralis?
Definition
a central pit depression that contains cone cells that mediate high light, color, detected vision
Term
What is the optic disc (blind spot)?
Definition
axons come together to form optic nerve and where blood vessels enter/leave retina. No photoreceptors.
Term
What is the ciliary muscle and zonular fibers?
Definition
ring of muscle attached to lens by zonular fibers to change thickness of lens to focus on objects at different distances (aka accomadation).
Term
What is the pigmented muscle that form a shade over lens to regulate amount of light entering eye?
Definition
iris
Term
what is the opening in the iris through which light passes?
Definition
pupil
Term
What kind of filling does the anterior,posterior, and main chamber have in the eye?
Definition
anterior and posterior: aqueous
main: vitreous
Term
What is wavelength range for which humans can see?
Definition
400nm - 700nm
Term
Which shape of lens directs refracted light to a focal point?
Definition
convex lens
Term
What kind of image is formed by convex lens?
Definition
upside down and reversed
Term
What happens to the ciliary muscle and zonular fibers when the lens is focusing on an distant object? Close object?
Definition
Distant: ciliary muscle relaxed, zon tight
Close: ciliary muscle tight, zon relaxed
Term
Which nervous system innervates iris muscles? What are the two iris muscles?
Definition
Autonomic NS. radial iris muscle increases pupil diameter. circular iris muscle decrease iris diameter.
Term
What is the difference between nearsightedness (myopia) and fasrsightedness (hyperopia)?
Definition
nearsighted: image formed in front of retina, corrected with concave lens
farsighted: image formed behind retina, corrected with convex lens
Term
What is the age related loss of near accomodation corrected with convex lens
Definition
presbyopia
Term
What is the interoccular pressure due to accumulation of aqueous fluid?
Definition
glaucoma
Term
Rod pigment is most sensitive to which color?
Definition
green
Term
What is achromatic vision?
Definition
colorless via rods, very sensitive but not detailed.
Term
What is chromatic vision?
Definition
color via cones. not very sensitive but highly detailed.
Term
How are images projected on the eye? Which side is which?
Definition
Left side of each receptive field is projected on the right side of retina and right is vice versa.
Term
What are some differences between the somatic and autonomic nervous system's neuron?
Definition
somatic: 1 neuron from CNS
voluntary control
synapses excitatory only
autonomic:2 neurons from CNS
involuntary
excite/inhibit
Term
How do the parasympathetic and sympathetic N.S. differ? (list 6 things).
Definition
1.P has cells in brainstem and sacrum. S has cells in thoracic and lumbar.
2.P. has long preganglionic fibers, S has short preganglionic fibers.
3.P has short postganglionic fibers, S has long.
4.P ganglia near tissue, S near spine.
5.P NT is ACH. S NT is ACH for pregang and neuroepiniphrine.
6.P is rest. S is fight or flight.
Term
What are the organ receptor types in parasympathetic? Sympathetic?
Definition
Para: cholinergic - m1 excites. m2 inhibits

Symp: adrenergic - alpha 1 and beta 1 excite and beta 2 inhibits
Term
What are the three functions of the heart?
Definition
1.transportation
2.regulation
3.protection
Term
What is the blood circulation pathway through the heart?
Definition
Superior/inferior vena cava > r. atrium > ventricular valve (tricuspid)> r. ventricle > pulmonary trunk > pulmonary arteries > lungs > pulmonary veins > l. atrium > atrio-ventricular valve (bicuspid)> l. ventricle > aorta ...
Term
What two things link cardiac cells together?
Definition
1.intercalated discs:
2.gap junctions (electrical signal)
Term
What are the three layers of the blood vessel and what are they made of?
Definition
1.tunica externa: fibrous layer
2.tunica media: smooth muscle for contractions
3.tunica intima: epithelial cells
Term
What size arteries control bp? What is site for autonomic innervation?
Definition
bp - large and small arteries
ANS - arterioles
Term
What is the difference between continous and fenestrated capillaries?
Definition
cont: tightly packed wall
fen: gaps maximized exchange
Term
How much blood volume does the veins carry back to the heart?
Definition
2/3
Term
What keeps blood from backflowing in vein?
Definition
one-way valves
Term
What keeps blood flow moving through veins?
Definition
Skeletal muscle - just moving around
Term
What is the bp in the pulmonary arteries? aorta?
Definition
pulmonary: 20-25/5-10mmHg
aorta:120/80
Term
What is the electrical pathway of the heart?
Definition
sa node > AV node > Bundle of His > R and L bundle branches > Purkinje fibers
Term
where are the purkinje fibers located?
Definition
ventricle surface
Term
at rest, what is the ejection fraction?
Definition
50-60%
Term
What is the ejection fraction?
Definition
amount of blood pumped from ventricles at rest.
Term
Where do you place leads I, II, III for EKG?
Definition
Lead I: R and L arms Lead II: R arm, L leg Lead III: L arm and leg
Term

[image]

When does replolarization and depolarization happen for atria and ventricles?

Definition

atria depol: p-wave

atria repol: hidden by QRS wave

ventricle depol: QRS wave (completely depol by t wave)

ventricle repol: t-wave

Term
What is bradycardia?
Definition
slow heart rate (<60bpm)
Term
What is tachycardia?
Definition
rapid heart rate (>100 bpm)
Term
What is fluttering of the heart? How does blood volume pumped change?
Definition
>200bpm. Gets to point where more heart is contracting to fast to get enough blood pumped.
Term
What happens during depolarization and repolarization for cardiac cells?
Definition
True resting potential near Ek, Na+ influx as depolarizing cells, small part when Na+ can't penetrate as well so ca2+ sustains depol. When ca2+ can't get in and K+ leaves, the cell repolarizes.
Term
What happens during depolarization and repolarization for SA node?
Definition
ca2+ and Na+ drift up membrane potential until threshold is reached. Ca2+ influx via L-type voltage-gated channels until Em is reached. Ca2+ channels closed as K+ influx repolarizes cell.
Term
What are two cellular mechanisms that change pace of heart?
Definition
1. modulate rate of depolarization
symp vs para. causes different
times for threshold to be reached.
2. alter the levels of hyperpolarization
2.
Term
In cardiac muscles, what are the reasons for no temporal summation or recruitment?
Definition
temporal: no ca2+ summation
recruitment: gap junctions innervate all at once.
Term
What is the difference between systole and diastole?
Definition
systolic - when ventricles contracts
diastolic- ventricular filling
Term
what is the volume of blood expelled from one ventricle during a single heartbeat?
Definition
stroke
Term
What is the equation for SV? For CO?
Definition
SV= end diastolic -end systolic
CO = HR x SV
Term
What are the four phases of the cardiac cycle?
Definition
1.ventricular filling
2.isovolumetric contraction
3.ejection
4.isovolumetric
Term
What diagram integrates the electrical and contractile activity of the heart?
Definition
Wigger's Diagram
Term
What is the volume of blood pumped per minute by each ventricle?
Definition
cardiac output
Term
What is the difference between positive and negative chronotropic effects on heart rates?
Definition
positive - faster. caused by epienephrine from adrenal medulla (increases amt of Ca2+)and norepinephrine from symmp. nerves)

Negative: slower. ACH from parasymp nerves
Term
What is afterload?
Definition
the force, the pressure the ventricles pump against (diastolic pressure).
Term
What are the three deterimants of stroke volume?
Definition
1.afterload
2.force of ventricle contraction
3.end diastolic volume
Term
How does high bp change the cardiac cycle?
Definition
increases in time of ventricle contraction and decreased time of ejection.
Term
What is the volume of blood in ventricles just prior to systolic pressure?
Definition
end-diastolic volume (EDV)
Term
How do you increase force of ventricle muscle contraction?
Definition
Increase level of activator of Ca2+ by sympathetic system.
Term
T OR F? Parasympathetic system innervates cardiac myocytes?
Definition
flase. only sympathetic.
Term
Which law states as EDV increases, stroke volume increases, the blood returned to heart, the greater the subsequent force of contraction?
Definition
Starling's Law of the Heart
Term
What is the effect of increasing EDV on pressure-volume relationships?
Definition
The more filling, the longer it takes to release pressure.
Term
What is the equation for flow?
Definition
Flow = change in Pressure / resistance
Term
What is the volume of blood moving past a given point per unit of time?
Definition
flow
Term
An increase/decrease in radius size of blood vessels increases/decreases blood flow to what power?
Definition
fourth
Term
What is the formula for CO?
Definition
CO = MABP/TPR
Term
Where is the major site of vascular resistance?
Definition
arterioles
Term
What are the three ways to control arteriolar radius?
Definition
extrinsic
paracrine
intrinsic
Term
What kind of extrinsic effects are one arteriolar radius? *3 of them*
Definition
1. sympathetic: Norepinephrine and epinephrine act on alpha 1(constrict) and beta 2(relax)
2. parasympathetic: ACH acts on M2 to relax muscle
3. hormones: vasopresin and angiotension II - constrict
Term
What are some effects of paracrine on arteriolar radius?
Definition
1.bradykins released from sweat glands cause vasodialation.
Term
What is myogenic control?
Definition
reflex of smooth muscle in blood vessels: increase bp stretches muscle, reflex is vasoconstriction, decreases blood flow, body then vasodialates to increase blood flow.
Term
What is metabolic control with blood vessels?
Definition
Metabolites in blood cause vasodialation. ex: increase co2, decreased ph
Term
What are intrinsic controls for blood vessel radius?
Definition
myogenic control and metabolic control
Term
What is the difference between capillary blood pressure (CBP) and plama colloid osmotic pressure?
Definition
CBP: pushes blood against vessel wall to promote filtration
P: proteins in plasma that promote reabsorption
Term
What does it mean if CBP is higher than Oncotic pressure? If CBP is lower?
Definition
higher: filtration
lower: reabsorption
Term
what is swelling due to fluid in the interstitial space?
Definition
edema
Term
Diastolic pressure last twice as long as systolic. How do you calculate MABP?
Definition
(2 X Diastolic + systolic)/3
Term
Where are baroreceptors? How do they increase heart rate and stroke volume if low bp?
Definition
aorta.
stimulates vasomotor center and cause constriction. inhibits vagus, simulates SA node, and stimulates cardiac myocytes.
Term
What is chronically high BP?
Definition
hypertension
Term
What are beta-blockers?
Definition
block beta receptors that lower heart rate and stroke volume.
Term
What is composed of nerve endings of axons with cell bodies in hypothalamus and secretes neurohormones into the blood?
Definition
posterior pituitary gland
Term
Which two hormones does the posterior pituitary glands? What do they do?
Definition
1.ADH - kidney:increase H2o absorption
increase vasopressin -bp
2.oxytocin - breast and uterus
Term
What are the three circulating energy substrates gained from foods (carbs, proteins,fats)?
Definition
glucose (used first)
fatty acids
amino acids
Term
What is the process to convert amino acid to glucose?
Definition
glucogenesis
Term
We have variable supply of substrates, but always in need of htem. absorptive state vs. fasting state?
Definition
absorptive: after meal and have surplus of nutrients

fasting: post-absorptive, in between meals when low supply
Term
the alpha and beta cells in the pancreas produce what?
Definition
beta - insulin
alpha - glucagon
Term
What is the difference between insulin and glucagon?
Definition
insulin-uptake of substrates when high amounts in plasma. Liver= glycogen synthesis. Fat cells = fats
increase protein synthesis.

Glucagon: utilizes substrates. When low plamsa glucose. In liver = glycogenolysis - breaks down glycogen, ketone bodies, Fat cells = glucagon increase lipolysis.
Term
What causes Type I diabetes?
Definition
autoimmune destruction of pancreatic Beta cells. Inadequate insulin produced = low glucose uptake = high levels in blood cause extra to be peed out.
Term
What causes diabetes insipidus?
Definition
due to lack of ADH (ADH causing decrease in reabsp. of H20 in cells use fats as source of energy), increase lipolysis > increase fatty acids > increase ketoacidosis > increase metabolic acidosis
Term
What causes type 2 diabetes?
Definition
insensitivity of tissue to insulin. increase plasma glucose levels, results in extra glucose being peed out - glucouria.
Term
what is hyperglycemia?
Definition
increased glucose attaches to proteins > vacular complications.
Term
What two parts make up the adrenal gland?
Definition
1.adrenal medulla: 20% of gland, secretes epi into blood

2.adrenal cortex: 80% of gland. aldoserone/corisol - steroids
Term
List adrenal hormones and their functions.
Definition
Cortex:aldosterone - kidney (increases Na+ reabsp and bp as part of renin angliotension system)
cortisol - many organs (decrease glucose uptake, increase protein breakdown, immune system)

medulla: epi - many organs (decrease many organs, acts on arterioles)
norepi:many organs
Term
What is overall metabolic effects of thyroid hormones? Compare hyperthyroid vs hypothyroid state?
Definition
increase metabolism and speed up everything.
Hyper:excess T3 and T4, increase everything, cardiac output
hypo: opposite - lethargy
Term
T3/T4 essential for development of CNS after birth. T3 enters cell to bind to nuclear receptor.
Definition
Term
How is thyroid gland secretion controlled?
Definition
Thyroid releasing hormone (TRH) drops into hypothalamus pit system into anterior pituitary gland. increases thyrotropin which stimulates t3/t4 in thyroid gland.
Term
Which composition of body fluid makes up the most body weight?
Definition
intracellular - 40%
extracellular - 20%
Term
What components make up extracellular fluid?
Definition
plasma - 20%
interstitial fluid - 80%
Term
What are the functions of the kidneys?
Definition
maintain water balance (input=output)
balance of many things
gluconeogenesis - make glucose from AAs
Term
what two hormones do kidneys secrete?
Definition
1.erythropietin - stimulates RBC production
2.renin - NA+ conservation and BP regulation
Term
Why is the bp of the glomerular capsule higer (65mmHG vs 35mmHg) than normal?
Definition
afferent arteriole's diameters are larger than efferent.
Term
nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. renal blood flow is 1.25 L/min
Definition
Aplpha I receptors on kidney restrict via NE. acts on glomerular to increase renin output.
Term
Where does filtration, reabspo, secretion and excretion occur along nepron?
Definition
flitration - glomeruls capsule (passive)
secretion - along nephron form peritubular capillaries (active)
reasbp: proximal convulted tubule (passive and active)
excretion: passed beyond collecting duct
Term
What gets filtered in nephrons?
Definition
everything except RBC, WBC and proteins.
Term
What forces determine nephron filtration?
Definition
1.CBP
2.fluid pressure in bowman's capsule
3.colloid osmotic pressure
Term
renin and NE acting on alpha receptor do what to nephrons?
Definition
vasocontriction - determines glomerular filtration rate
Term
Where does what reabsp in nephron?
Definition
65% reabsp in proximal convaluted tubule, 25% NA+ and H20 reabsorbed in loop of henle. 10% collected in DCT and collecting duct.
Term
Where do diuretics/ anti.. act on?
Definition
in DCT and collecting duct
Term
What is reabsorption?
Definition
movement of materials from nephron to peritubular caps
Term
What cmpd is secreted in nephrons?
Definition
All K+ is put back into the PCT, but later can be exchaged for NA+ in the DCT and collecting ducts.
Term
What is the renal plasma clearance test used for?
Definition
know the volume of plasma from which a substance is cleared
Term
65% of Na+ and all K+ are absorbed in PCT, 25# Na+ in loop of henle.

aldosterone - increases NA+ asbp in DCT/CD
Definition
natriuretic peptide increases Na+ excretion
Term
60% water reasbp in descending loop of henle and Na+ is blocked. Ascending loop of henle blocks H20 but let s in na+. CL travls along to maintain negativity.
Definition
Term
What does an increase in ADH do? Decrease?
Definition
increase: increase reabp, and less urine volume, increase blood volume.
decrease: opposite effect
Term
What is the difference between iodine deficeincy dz and grave's dz?
Definition
ID: lower levels of T3/T4 (b/c low I2) leads to more TSH, TRH be made, enlarged thyroid - treat with T3/T4 replacement

Graves: too much T3,T4 from execess TSH.
Term
bone remodeling is stimulated by what? inhibited by what?

osteoblast vs osteoclast?
Definition
stim: cortisol and paraythyroid hormone
inhibited: estrogen

osteoblast:makes bones
osteoclast: breaks bones down
Term
Which gland is plama Ca2+ sensitive?
Which gland produces calcitonin?
Definition
parathyroid hormone
thryoid
Term
Whats the difference between parathyroid hormone and calcitonin?
Definition
parathryoid: makes bones, kidneys etc reabsp ca2+
calitonin: opposite
Term
What are the three functions of respiratory system?
Definition
1. provide o2
2. remove CO2
3. balance plama Ph
Term
What happens to the diaphragm during inspiration and exspiration?
Definition
inspiration: diaphragm contracts (flattens) and volume increases
expiration: opposite
Term
What is Dalton's Law?
Definition
partial pressure (one gas) is proportional to the total amount of gas
Term
What makes up most of the air we breathe?
Definition
nitrogen, then oxygen
Term
Describe O2 and hb (hemoglobin).
Definition
hemoglobin has 4 subproteins. Saturated under normal arteriol Po2, lower releases O2. Venous (40 mmhg) keeps O2)
Term
Co2 binds more readily to O2. What cause more O2 to become more available?
Definition
increased temps and H+
Term
which form does co2 mostly travel in?
Definition
co2 + H20 > H2Co3 > **HCO3 + H+
increases H+ in body
Term
How is respiration regulated?
Definition
pneumotaxic inhibits, apheustic stimulates DRG to effect inspiratoin (COntrols diaphragm)
VRG controls accessory muscles.
* both via the spinal cord
Term
Chemoreceptors on aortic arch pick up on what?
Definition
low levels of partial pressure o2
high levels of H+
Term
central medulla in brain stem isn't permeable to H+ but co2, so can pick up PCO2.
Definition
yay!
Term
What creates surface tension in alveoli?
Definition
hydrogen bonds in h2o. surfactant has proteins and phospholipids that bind to h20 to reduce surface tension
Term
What is the processes called for making sperm and egg.
Definition
sperm - spermatogenesis
egg -oogenesis
Term
What are the main sex hormones and where do they come from?
Definition
androgens(testosterone) - testes
estrogen and progesterone - ovary or placenta
Term
secondary sexual characteristics are...
Definition
not related to reproduction
- hair growth
- libido
-behavior
Term
what is the site of spermatogenesis?
Definition
seminiferous tubules
Term
what surrounds seminiferous tubules and produces testosterone?
Definition
leydig cells
Term
what is the network of tubules that collect sperm?
Definition
rete testis
Term
what conducts sperm out of testis into epidiymus?
Definition
efferent ductules
Term
what is the duct where sperm is stored and concentrated?
Definition
epididymis
Term
what is the thick wall tube that moves sperm out?
Definition
vas deferens
Term
what is the paired structures, that secrete material into vas deferens?
Definition
seminal vesicles
Term
single gland at junction of vas defs and urethera that accounts for most of semen volume?
Definition
prostate gland
Term
secretes into urethera?
Definition
bulbourethral gland
Term
What stimulates spermatogenesis?
Definition
FSH follicle stimulating hormone
Term
how are sertoli cells and sperm cells linked?
Definition
sertoli surrounds sperm cells to regulate FSH and testosterone. Sperm cells take 64 days to develop. Made by meiosis. haploid.
Term
What is the default patterns for fetuses>
Definition
female (xx) males (xy)
Term
Where does fertilization take place?
Definition
oviduct
Term
zygote enters uterus 3-4 days after fertilization.
Definition
Term
guandotropin acts as LH to keep luteum proudcing hormones
Definition
estrogen and progesteron suprress GNRH in hypthalamus to keep LH and FSH from secreting.
Term
what are some functions of progesterone?
Definition
1.prepare uterus for implantation
2.reduce uterine contractions
3.promotes ueterine growth
4.placnetal attachment
Term
When does parturation occcur?
Definition
2 weeks before birth. estrogen induces oxytocin receptors in myometrium.
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