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Physiology class final (ISU)
Note-cards over the last two chapters (urinary and reproductive) which will be on the final exam.
118
Physiology
Undergraduate 1
04/25/2013

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Term
Male Reproductive system?
Definition
Testes, Duct system, Accessory sex glands, and supporting structures.
Term
Duct system?
Definition
Epididymis, vas deferens, Ejaculatory ducts, and Urethra
Term
Accessory sex glands
Definition
Seminal vesicles, Prostate, and Bulbourethral glands
Term
Supporting structures?
Definition
Scrotum and Penis
Term
Scrotum?
Definition
Pouch/sac that contains the testes
Term
Testes?
Definition
  • Paired oval glands
  • Manufacture sperm
  • Secrete testosterone hormone
Term
Duct system?
Definition
  • Epididymis
    • tightly coiled ducts
    • sperm mature here
  • vas deferens
    • tubular structure
    • sperm stored here
Term
Penis?
Definition
  • delivers sperm to female reproductive tract
  • spongy tissue fills with blood and organ becoms stiff and erect
  • sperm travels by peristalsis from vas deferens to ejaculatory duct to urethra 
Term
Prostate gland?
Definition
secretes milky, slightly acidic fluid that assists in semem coagulation
Term
Seminal vesicles
Definition
  • secrete fluid that neurtalizes acidic vagina
  • provides fructose for sperm ATP production
  • contributes to sperm motility and viability
  • helps semen coagulate for better delivery after ejaculation
Term
Ejaculation
Definition
Reflex ejection of semen from penis
Term
Semen
Definition
  • Mixture of sperm and accessory sex gland secretions
  • Volume is 50-150 million per mL
  • Under 20 million sperm per mL is not enough to fertilize egg
  • pH of 7.2 to 7.7
Term

Seminiferous Tubules

 

Definition
  • Lined with spermatogenic cells
Term
Spermatogenia
Definition
Stem cell precursors of sperm
Term
Sertoli Cells
Definition
  • Found between the sperm cells in seminiferous tubules
  • support, protect, and nourish spermatogenic cells
  • release inhibin hormone
    • regulates sperm production
Term
Leydig Cells
Definition
Secrete testosterone hormone
Term
Spermatoenesis
Definition
  • production of sperm
  • 300 million sperm produced per day
  • do not survive more than 48 hours in female reproductive tract
Term
Sperm
Definition
  • Two parts: head and tail
  • head contains DNA
  • Tail has four parts
    • neck
      • behind head
    • middle piece
      • contains the mitochondria that contain ATP
    • principal piece
      • longest portion of tail
    • end piece
      • last segment
Term
Pathway of sperm
Definition
  • sperm made in testes
  • released into seminiferous tubule lumen
  • mature in epididymis
  • stored in vas deferens
  • travels through ejaculatory duct during ejaculation into urethra and mixes with secretions from:
    • seminal vesicles
    • prostate
    • bulbourethral glands
  • semen is formed and leaves penis 
Term
Androgens in male reproductive system?
Definition
Testosterone and Dihydrotestosterone
Term
Hormonal regulation in the male reproductive tract
Definition
  • FSH and testosterone stimulate spermatogenisis 
Term
Female reproductive system organs
Definition
  • Ovaries
  • uterine/fallopian tubes
  • uterus
  • vagina
  • vulva/pupendum
  • mammary glands
Term
Oogenesis
Definition
Female gamete or egg cell (oocyte) generation process in ovaries
Term
Ovaries
Definition
  • Paired organs that produce:
    • secondary oocytes
      • become mature eggs/ova if fertilized
    • hormones
      • progesterone
      • estrogen
      • inhinin
      • relaxin
Term
Ligaments of the Ovaries
Definition
  • Hold ovaries in position
  • Ovarian ligament
    • anchors ovaries to uterus
  • suspensory ligament
    • anchors ovaries to pelvic wall
  • broad ligament
    • attaches ovaries to uterus with a double-layered peritoneum
Term

Oocyte Development

 

Definition
  • All oocytes are formed by the time the female is born
    • Oocytes therefore are not produced continuously throughout life as in male spermatocytes
  • Oocytes do not mature until puberty
  • One oocyte develps each month from puberty until menopause
Term
Uterine Tubes
Definition
  • Also known as fallopian tubes
  • extend laterally from uterus to ovaries 
  • infundibulum
    • open, funnel shaped tube end
    • close in location to ovary, but open to pelvic cavity
  • Fimbriae
    • finger like projection with sweeping movements to catch and direct released oocyte form ovary into unterine tube
  • uterin tubes transport oocyte into uterus
Term
Uterus?
Definition
  • Found between the urinary bladder and rectum
  • Inverted pear shape
  • site of implantation of fertilized ovum
  • site of fetus development
Term

Parts of the uterus

 

Definition
  • Fundus
    • dome-shaped portion
    • superior to uterin tubes
  • Body
    • taperin central portion
  • Cervix
    • narrow portion opening into vagina
  • Uterine cavity
    • interior of body of uterus 
Term
Parts of the Uterine wall
Definition
Myometrium and endometrium
Term
Myometrium
Definition
  • Smooth muscle layer
  • Forms bulk of uterine wall
  • Important in labor contractions
Term
Endometrium
Definition
  • Innermost layer of uterine wall
  • mucous membrane layer
  • responsible for nourishing fetus
  • shed each month during menses
Term
Vagina?
Definition
  • found between urinary bladder and rectum.
  • canal that extends from exterior of body to cervix of uterus
  • receptalce for penis and semen during sexual intercourse
  • outlet for menstrual flow
  • passageway for child birth
Term
Hymen
Definition
  • thin fold of mucous membrane that partially covers vaginal orifice
  • usually breaks and bleeds during first sexual intercourse
  • can also break during sports or other physical activity
Term
Vaginal Mucosa
Definition
Has large stores of glycogen
Term
Perineum
Definition
Diamond shaped area between the thighs and buttocks in both males and females
Term
Female external genitals?
Definition
Vulva, mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, and vesibule.
Term
Components of Breasts
Definition
nipple, areola, mammary glands
Term
Mammary glands
Definition
  • Located in breasts
  • part of the female reproductive system
  • modified sweat glands
  • develop during puberty
  • produce milk
  • contain 15-20 lobes 
Term

Fertilization

 

Definition
  • secondary oocyte is only viable for 24 hours after ovulation
  • sperm are viable up to 48 hours after being deliverto female
  • require 6 hours to move from vagina to uterine tube
  • semen delivered in vagina near cervix and coagulates
  • sperm swim from vagina through cervix to uterine tube
Term
Ovulation tests
Definition
  • can detect high levels of LH
  • can predict ovulation 1 day in advance
Term
Contraception
Definition
  • prevention of fertilization or interruption of fertilization process
Term
hormonal prevention of ovulation
Definition
  • oral contraceptives with various levels of estrogen and progestin
  • negative feedback inhibition of FSH and LH secretion
  • prevention of a dominant follicle development
Term
STD's
Definition
Caused by bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and fungi
Term
Chlamydia
Definition
  • urethritis in males, pelvic inflammatory disease in females
  • treated with antibiotics
Term
Gonorrhea
Definition
  • urethritis with excess pus discharge, may be symptomless in females leading to sterility
  • treated with antibiotics
Term
Syphilis
Definition
  • painless open sore
  • rash, fever, joint pain
  • ogans deteriorate
  • treated with antibiotics if caugh before organs deteriorate
Term
Genital herpes
Definition
  • painful blisters on external genitalia
  • possible internal blistering in females
  • controled with anti inflammatory drugs
Term
genital warts
Definition
  • cauliflower-like growth in external genitalia and internal growth in females
  • warts can be removed cryogenically
Term
Pregnancy
Definition
  • 38 weeks
  • due date is calculated from first day of mothers last menstrual period
  • fertilized egg changes from 1 cell to 1 trillion
  • embryonic period
    • lasts from fertilization to 8 weeks
  • fetal period
    • 8 weeks to birth
Term
Changes in skin during pregnancy
Definition
  • increased pigmentation around the eyes and cheekbones
  • increased pigmentation in the areolae
  • increased pigmentation in the lower abdomen
  • strech marks in the lower abdomen as fetus grows
  • hair loss
Term
cardiovascular system changes during pregnancy
Definition
  • stroke volume increases by 30%
  • cardiac output rises by 20-30%
    • increased blood flow to placenta
    • increased metabolism
Term
Pulmonary system changes during pregnancy
Definition
  • total body oxygen consumption increases by 10-20%
  • more difficulty breathing as fetus grows
Term
Digestive system changes during pregnancy
Definition
  • increase in appetite
  • pressure on stomach can lead to gastric reflux (heartburn)
  • nausea, vomitting, heartburn
Term
urinary system changes
Definition
  • pressure on bladder
    • increased frequency of urination
    • increased urgency of urination
    • stress incontinence 
Term
reproductive system changes during pregnancy
Definition
  • edema of vagina
  • increased blood flow to vagina
  • increased numbers of muscle fibers in uterus
  • enlargement of uterus
  • increase in uterine mass
Term
other physiological changes during pregnancy
Definition
  • weight gain due to fetus
  • amniotic fluid
  • placenta
  • uterine enlargement
  • increased total body water
  • increased nutrient storage
  • breast enlargement for lactation
  • lower back pain
Term
Important hormones in pregnancy
Definition
hCG, estrogen, pregesterone, relaxin, human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS), and Corticotropin-relasing hormone (CRH)
Term
hCG
Definition
  • maintains corpus luteum
  • peaks at 4th month of pregnancy
Term
Estrogen and progesterone
Definition
  • secreted initially by corpus luteum and later by the chorion throughout the pregnancy
Term
Relaxin
Definition
  • Secreted by corpus luteum and placenta
  • sogtens pubic symphysis
  • relaxes sacroiliac ligaments
  • dilates cervix for labor
Term

Human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS)

 

Definition
  • secreted by the chorion
  • secretion increases as placenta grows 
  • help prepare breast tissue for milk production and lactation
Term
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
Definition
  • secreted by placenta at 12 weeks of pregnancy
  • secretion increases until end of pregnancy
  • important for timing of birth process
Term
Labor
Definition
  • Process of giving birth, where fetus is expelled from uterus through vagina
  • estrogens stimulate placenta to secrete prostaglandins
  • prostaglandins act as local hormones to induce enzyme secretions to digest collagen fibers to cervix
  • cervix therefore softens
  • estrogens induce oxytocin receptors on uterine muscle fibers
  • relaxin hormone increases flexibility of pubic symphysis and sids in cervix dilation
  • labor is an example of a positive feedback loop uterine contractions induced by oxytocin cause the cervix to stretch, which in turn induces more uterine contractions
Term
Three stages of labor
Definition
  • Dilation stage
  • expulsion stage
  • placental stage
Term
Dilation stage
Definition
  • cervix dilates for baby to pass
  • lasts 6-12 hours
  • regular contraction of uterus
  • rupturing of amniotic sac
  • complete dilation of cervix
Term
expulsion stage
Definition
  • baby is expelled 
  • 10 minutes to several hours after complete cervical dilation
Term
placental stage
Definition
  • placenta or afterbirth is expelles by uterine contractions
  • contractions also constrict blood vessels torn during delivery to reduce chance of hemorrhaging
Term
Parturition
Definition
  • the act of givine birth; delivery
  • labor lasts longer with the first baby; around 14 hours
  • after first birth, parturition tends to be shorter; around 8 hours
  • fetus is usually positioned head down towards vagina
  • any other orientation of fetus is known as breech
Term
Premature infant classification
Definition
  • weighs less than 5.5 pounds for 2500 g at birth
  • usually needs medical care to survive, as body not adequately developed
Term
premature delivery causes?
Definition
  • poor prenatal care
  • maternal drug abuse
  • history of previous premature delivery
  • maternal age under 16 or over 35
Term
delivering past the due date
Definition
  • 7% of pregnant women do not deliver by two weeks after the due date
  • inadequate supply of oxygen and nutrient from aging placenta
    • increased risk of brain damage
    • increased risk of fetal death
  • delivery can be facilitated
    • induced labor through oxytocin
    • cesarean section
Term
Lactiation
Definition
  • Prolactin hormone maintains milk by mammary glands
  • milk is produced after birth, after inhibitory levels of estrogens and pregesterone are removed
  • lactation is another example of an oxytocin positive feedback mechanism; suckling causes oxytocin to be released for milk ejection, which in turn encourages more suckling and more milk ejection
Term
colostrum
Definition
  • nutrient rich fluid secreted form maternal mammary glands during the first few days after birth
  • less lactose and no fat as compaired to milk
  • high in protein content
  • readily digested until true milk comes in 4 days after birth
Term
Human milk
Definition
  • sterile
  • ideal for infant digestion, brain development, and growth
  • more nutritional than synthetic formulas
  • contains
    • fatty acids
    • lactose
    • amino acids
    • minerals
    • vitamins
    • water
    • maternal antibodies
Term
Organs of the urinary system
Definition
kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra
Term
functions of the urinary system
Definition
  • filtration of blood plasma
  • reabsorption of essential substances
  • secretion of nonessential substances
  • all help to maintain body homeostasis and maintain fluid and electrolyte balance
Term
Kidney external anatomy
Definition
  • pair of reddish organs
  • shaped like kidney beans, size of bar soap in adults
  • found on each side of the vertebral column 
  • 11th and 12th pair of ribs protect superior portion of kidneys
  • right kidney is slighly lower than left, due to liver occupying more space on the right

 

Term
kidney functions
Definition
  • regulation of blood volume
  • regulation of blood pressure
  • regulation of blood composition and blood pH
  • production of two hormones
  • excretion of wastes
Term
Kidney internal anatomy
Definition
  • two main regions
    • renal cortex
      • receives majority of blood supply
    • Renal medulla
      • contains tubules that collect and concentrate filtrate fluid to become urine
  • Renal pelvis
    • minor calyx
      • cup like structure in rim of renal pelvis
      • urine drains into here from medulla through ducts
    • major calyx
      • cup like structure in rim of renal pelvis
      • receives urine from minor calyx and connects to ureter
Term
Renal blood flow
Definition
  • 20-25% of resting cardiac output flows through kidneys via renal arteries and veins
  • afferent arterioles divide into the glomerulus, a capillary network
  • glomeruli then unite to form the efferent arteriole
Term
Nephron
Definition
  • functional units that make up the kidney
  • extends from cortex into medulla
  • cortical nephrons
    • short loops of henle that extend minimally into medulla
  • juxtamedullary nephrons
    • long loops of henle that extend deep into medulla
  • two parts 
    • renal corpuscle
    • renal tubule
Term

Renal corpuscle

 

Definition
  • blood plasma filtered here
  • two parts
    • glomerulus
    • glomerular/bowman's capsule
      • blood enters here, then goes to renal tubule
Term
renal tubule
Definition
  • urine then travels through renal tubule segments in the following order
    • proximal convoluted tubule
    • nephron loop
    • distal convoluted tubule
  • urine then goes from these renal tubule structures to the collecting duct
Term
Filtrate becoming urine
Definition
  • Kidney filters blood plasma
  • reabsorbs
    • water
    • ions
    • glucose
  • secretes
    • nitrogen based waste products
    • drugs 
    • toxins
Term
steps of urine formation
Definition
  • Glomerular filtration
  • tubular reabsorption
  • tubular secretion
Term
Glomerular filtration
Definition
  • blood pressure forces water and dissolved substances across glomerular capillary wall into renal corpuscle
Term
Tubular reabsorption
Definition
  • Tubule cell membranes absorbs solutes and water
  • 99% is returned to blood
Term
Tubular secretion
Definition
  • as fluid flows across tubules and collecting duct, wastes, drugs, and excess ions in blood are secreted into filtrate to eventually be removed from the body
Term
filtration facts
Definition
  • kidneys filter 180 L in males and 150 L in females each day
  • filtration is powered by net pressures within the renal corpuscle
  • Tubular reabsorption and secretion are driven by the membrane transport processes across renal tubule cells
Term
glomerular filtration
Definition
  • occurs in renal corpuscle and deals with fluid moving from the glomerulus into glomerular capsule
  • three layer filtration membrane
  • blood pressure drives filtration in the glomerular capillaries
Term
albuminuria
Definition
  • excessuve anounts of the large protein albumin found in urine
  • indication that the filtration membrane is damaged due to 
    • injury 
    • disease
    • high blood pressure
    • kidney cell damage
Term
glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
Definition
  • rate at which fluid is filtered in renal corpuscle
  • 105 ml/min in females, 125 ml/min in males
  • speed of GFR is crucial to how much is reabsorbed
Term
what is reabsorbed during GFR
Definition
  • Water
  • ions
  • glucose
  • amino acids
Term
what is secreted during GFR
Definition
  • waste substances
    • nitrogen based waste products
  • drugs
  • ions
Term
Reabsorption in the renal tubule
Definition
  • 2/3 of water and solutes reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule
  • secretion of urea, creatinine, ammonium ion, and hydrogen ion also occure in the PCT
  • the fluid here is isomotic to blood plasma
Term
Hormone regulation
Definition
  • aldosterone
    • Na is reabsorbed and K is secreted in distal convoluted tuble and collecting ducts
  • parathyroid hormone (PTH)
    • causes calcium ions to be reabsorbed in DCT
  • antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
    • causes water to be reabsorbed in DCT and collecting ducts
Term
Urine
Definition
filtrate after it leaves the collecting ducts
Term
Bladder
Definition
  • Hollow muscular organ in pelvic cavity
  • holds around 700-800 mL of urine
  • peritoneal folds hold bladder in place
  • males
    • directly in front of rectum
  • females
    • front of vagina, below uterus
    • smaller than in males due to its position below uterus
Term
muscular layer of the bladder
Definition
  • three layers of smooth muscle called detrusor muscle
  • allows bladder to expand and appear round and pear shaped as it fills with urine
  • when empty, looks like a deflated balloon
  • contractions generate pressure to expel urine through urethra and out the body
Term
urethra anatomy
Definition
  • small tube leading from floor of bladder to exterior of body
  • internal urethral sphincter around opening of urethra
    • involuntary smooth muscle
  • external urethral sphincter
    • voluntary skeletal muscle
  • In males it also serves as the duct for urine, as well as semen
Term
Micturition
Definition
  • urination
Term
micturition reflex
Definition
  • as urine accumulates in the bladderk, a reflex is stimulated to start the process of micturition
  • smooth muscles and sphincter muscles are innervated by the parasympathetic nervous system
  • cerebral cortex can temporarily suppress the reflex
Term
urinary incontinence
Definition
  • inability to retain urine through loss of sphincter control
Term
body fluids
Definition
  • water composes 45-75% of total body mass, depending on age, gender, and fitness level
  • body fluids are found in three major compartments
    • intracellular fluid
      • 2/3 of body fluid here
    • extracellular fluid
      • 1/3 of body fluid here
Term
electrolytes
Definition
  • compound that seperates into ions when dissolved in water and conducts electricity
Term
osmotic control
Definition
  • osmotic gradient, and therefore water movement, is regulated by distribution of electrolytes in
    • plasma
    • interstitial fluid
    • intracellular fluid
Term
water intake
Definition
  • homeostasis is maintained by equal gain and loss of about 2500 mL of water
Term
dehydration
Definition
  • water loss is greater than water gain
Term
osmoreceptors
Definition
  • located in hypothalamus
  • sense fluid level changes and stimulates posterior pituitary to secrete ADH
Term
urinary calculi
Definition
  • kidney or bladder stones
  • when concentrated urine is produced, calcium and phosphorus oxalates crystallize out of solution to form stones
  • treatment
    • urinary acidifier medication
    • breaking into smaller pieces using sonication, ultrasound, and lasers
    • pass naturally through tubing
Term
acidosis
Definition
  • blood pH is below 7.35
Term

alkalosis

 

Definition
  • blood pH is higher than 7.45
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