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Midterm 1
Hofmann
428
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
10/20/2009

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

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Term
Cognitive Psychology
Definition
approach to psychology focusing on the ways in which organisms process information, investigating processes such as thinking, memory, language, problem solving, and creativity.
Term
Developmental Psychology
Definition
field of specialization in psychology concerned with factors that influence development and shape behavior throughout the life cycle from conception through old age.
Term
Social Psychology
Definition
field of specialization concerned with understanding the impact of social environments and social processes on individuals.
Term
Personality Psychology
Definition
field of specialization that focuses on exploring the uniqueness of the individual, describing the elements that make up human personality, and investigating how personality develops and how it influences people's activities.
Term
Experimental Psychology
Definition
field of specialization in which the primary activity is conducting research.
Term
Biological Psychology
Definition
branch neuroscience also known as physiological psychology, that focuses on the relationship between behavior and physiological events within the brain and the rest of the nervous system.
Term
Clinical Psychology
Definition
Area of specialization involved in the diagnosis and treatment of behavioral problems.
Term
Counseling Psychology
Definition
area of specialization involved in the diagnosis and treatment of problems of adjustment. Counseling psychologists tend to focus on less serious problems than do clinical psychologists; they often work in settings such as schools.
Term
Theory
Definition
A scientific theory is a logical explanation for all of the relevant data or facts scientists have observed regarding certain natural phenomena. An essential aspect of scientific theories is that they must be both testable and refutable.
Term
Hypothesis
Definition
statement proposing the existence of a relationship between variables, typically as a tentative explanation for cause and effect, and often designed to be tested by research
Term
Replication Studies
Definition
research conducted for the purpose of verifying previous findings.
Term
Case Study
Definition
method of research that involves in-depth study of one or more subjects who are examined individually using direct observation, testing, experimentation, and other methods.
Term
Experimental Method
Definition
subjects are confronted with specific stimuli under precisely controlled conditions. Researchers using this method directly manipulate a particular set of conditions (independent variable), and then observe the effect on behavior (dependent variable).
Term
Surveys
Definition
A representative group of people are questioned, using interviews or written questionnaires, about their behaviors and attitudes.
Term
Observational Method
Definition
researchers observe their subjects as they go about their usual activities, which often take place in a natural setting.
Term
Correlational Method
Definition
statistical methods are used to assess and describe the amount and type of relationship between two variables of interest.
Term
Sample
Definition
selected segment of a larger population that is being studied in psychological research.
Term
Representative Sample
Definition
sample in which critical subgroups are represented according to their incidence in the larger population that the researcher is studying. Closely matches the characteristics of the population of interest. If not, biased sample.
Term
Random Sample
Definition
sample group of a larger population that is selected by randomization procedures. Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
Term
Naturalistic Observation
Definition
psychological research using the observational method that takes place in a natural setting, such as a subject's home or school environment.
Term
Observer Bias
Definition
tendency of an observer to read more into a situation that is actually there or to see what he or she expects to see.
Term
Observer Effect
Definition
tendency of subjects to modify behavior because they are aware of being observed.
Term
Coefficient of Correlation
Definition
statistics used to describe the degree of relationship between two or more variables in which positive correlations indicate that variables vary together in the same direction and negative correlations indicate the opposite.
Term
Experimental Research
Definition
research conducted in precisely controlled laboratory conditions in which subjects are confronted with specific stimuli and their reactions are carefully measured to discover relationships among variables.
Term
Independent Variable
Definition
condition or factor that the experimenter manipulates in order to determine whether changes in behavior results.
Term
Dependent Variable
Definition
the behavior that results from manipulation of an independent variable.
Term
Experimental Group
Definition
a group of subjects who are exposed to different varieties of independent variables, so that resulting behaviors can be compared.
Term
Control Group
Definition
a group of subjects who experience all the same conditions as subjects in the experimental group except for the key factor (independent variable) the researcher is evaluating.
Term
Ethical Problem
Definition
Milgram: placing people in a position where they feel compelled to hurt? deception appropriate in experiments? Zimbardo: placing humans in a situation the researchers might have anticipated could lead to hostile confrontation?
Term
Statistics
Definition
mathematical methods for describing and interpreting data. Descriptive and inferential.
Term
Descriptive Statistics
Definition
mathematical graphical methods for reducing data to a form that can be readily understood
Term
Measure of Central Tendency
Definition
in descriptive statistics, a value that reflects the middle or central point of a distribution of scores. Measured by mean, median and mode.
Term
Mean
Definition
arithmetic average obtained by adding scores and dividing by number of scores.
Term
Median
Definition
the score that falls in the middle of a distribution of numbers arranged from the lowest to the highest.
Term
Mode
Definition
the score that occurs most frequently in a distribution of numbers
Term
Normal Distribution
Definition
a distribution in which scores are distributed similarly on both sides of the middle value, so that they have the appearance of a bell shaped curve when graphed.
Term
Skewed
Definition
describes an unbalanced distribution of scores.
Term
Measure of Variability
Definition
a measure that indicates whether distribution scores are clustered closely around their average or widely spread out. Two measures of variability are the range and the standard deviation.
Term
Range
Definition
a measure of variability that indicates the difference between the highest and the lowest scores.
Term
Standard Deviation
Definition
a measure of variability that indicates the average extent to which all the scores in a distribution vary from the mean.
Term
Percentile
Definition
numbers from a range of data indicating percentages of scores that lie below them.
Term
Standard Score
Definition
a measure that indicates how far a score deviates from the average in standard units.
Term
Inferential Statistics
Definition
process of using mathematical procedures to draw conclusions about the meaning of research data.
Term
Operational Definition
Definition
definition specifying the operations that are used to measure or observe a variable, such as a definition of obesity specifying a certain a certain weight-height relationship.
Term
Statistical Significance
Definition
describes research results in which changes in the dependent variable can be attributed with a high level of confidence to the experimental condition (or independent variable) being manipulated by the researcher.
Term
Central Nervous System
Definition
brain and spinal cord
Term
Peripheral Nervous System
Definition
transmits messages to and from central nervous system. somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system.
Term
Neurons
Definition
type of cell that is the basic unit of the nervous system. Consists of cell body, dendrites, and an axon. transmit messages to other neurons and to glands and muscles throughout the body.
Term
Sensory/ Afferent Neuron
Definition
neuron that carries messages from CNS to receptors in the skin, ears, nose, eyes and other receptor organs.
Term
Motor Neuron
Definition
neuron that transmits messages from the CNS to muscles or glands
Term
Interneuron
Definition
neuron of the CNS that functions as an intermediary between sensory and motor neurons.
Term
Cell Body
Definition
largest part of neuron, containing nucleus as well as structures that handle metabolic functions.
Term
Dendrite
Definition
branch-like extensions from a neuron with the specialized function of receiving messages from surrounding neurons.
Term
Axon
Definition
extension of a neuron that transmits an impulse from the cell body to the terminal buttons on the tip of the axon.
Term
Terminal Buttons
Definition
swollen bulb-like structures on the end of a neuron's axon that release chemical substances known as neurotransmitters.
Term
Resting Potential
Definition
state in which a neuron is not transmitting a nerve impulse. A neuron in this state has a net negative charge relative to its outside environment, and this state of potential energy prepares it to be activated by an impulse from an adjacent neuron.
Term
Graded Potential
Definition
voltage change in a neuron's dendrites that is produced by receiving an impulse from another neuron/ other neurons.
Term
Action Potential
Definition
electrical signal that flows along the surface of the axon to the terminal buttons, initiating the release of neurotransmitters.
Term
All-Or-None Law
Definition
an action potential will be passed through a neuron's axon as long as the sum of graded potentials reaches a threshold. The strength of an action potential does not vary according to the degree of stimulation.
Term
Glia Cells
Definition
specialized cells that form insulating covers called myelin sheaths around the axons of some neurons, increasing conductivity.
Term
Myelin Sheath
Definition
insulating cover around some axons that increases a neuron's ability to transmit impulses quickly. Made of glia cells.
Term
Node of Ranvier
Definition
small gap or exposed portion of the axon of a neuron between the glia cells that form the myelin sheath.
Term
Synapse
Definition
includes the synaptic gap and a portion of the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes that are involved in transmitting a signal between neurons.
Term
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials
Definition
effects that occur when excitatory neurotransmitters cause a graded potential to occur on the dendrite or cell body of a receiving neuron
Term
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials
Definition
a transitory state of hyperpolarization that occurs when inhibitory neurotransmitters inhibit the postsynaptic membrane of a receiving neuron.
Term
Somatic Nervous System
Definition
division of the PNS that transmits messages to and from major skeletal muscles as well as from sensory organs to the CNS
Term
Autonomic Nervous System
Definition
division of the PNS that transmits messages between the central nervous system and the endocrine system as well as the smooth muscles of the heart, lungs, stomach, and other internal organs, which operate without intentional control.
Term
Sympathetic Nervous System
Definition
division of the autonomic nervous system that functions to produce emergency responses such as increased heart rate, pupil dilation, and inhibited digestive activity. The sympathetic nervous system works in tandem with the parasympathetic nervous system.
Term
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Definition
division of the autonomic nervous system that functions to conserve energy, returning body to normal from emergency responses set in motion by the sympathetic nervous system.
Term
Cerebral Hemispheres
Definition
the two sides of the cerebrum.
Term
Medulla
Definition
structure low in the brain that controls vital life support functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure; also regulates reflexive functions such as coughing or sneezing.
Term
Pons
Definition
brain structure located just above the medulla that functions in fine-tuning motor messages, programming species-typical behaviors, processing sensory information, and controlling respiration.
Term
Cerebellum
Definition
brain structure located beneath the overhanging back part of the cerebral hemispheres which functions to coordinate and regulate motor movement.
Term
Reticular Formation
Definition
set of neural circuits extending from the lower brain up to the thalamus that play a critical role in controlling arousal and alertness.
Term
Limbic System
Definition
collection of structures located around the central core of the brain that play a critical role in emotional expression, learning, and memory. Key structures of the limbic system include the amygdala, the hippocampus, the septal area, and parts of the hypothalamus.
Term
Amygdala
Definition
a small limbic system structure located next to the hippocampus in the brain that plays an important role in the expression of anger, rage, fear, and aggressive behavior.
Term
Hippocampus
Definition
structure in the brain's limbic system that seems to play an important role in memory.
Term
Septal area
Definition
structure in the brain's limbic system that plays a role in the experiencing of pleasure.
Term
Mesolimbic-Cortical System
Definition
the system of dopamine-containing neurons that originate in the ventral pons, project through the nucleus acumbens and septum, and terminate in the frontal cortex. This system mediates the reinforcing effects of addictive drugs
Term
Hypothalamus
Definition
small structure located below the thalamus in the brain that plays an important role in motivation and emotional expression, as well as controlling the neuroendocrine system and maintaing the body's homeostasis. The hypothalamus is part of the limbic system.
Term
Thalamus
Definition
structure located beneath the cerebrum in the brain that functions as a relay station, routing incoming sensory information to appropriate areas in the cerebral cortex. Also seems to play a role in regulating sleep cycles.
Term
Basal Ganglia
Definition
neural structures involved in the initiation of motor movement and emotion. Includes the caudate nucleus, putamen, and the substantia nigra.
Term
Caudate Nucleus / Putamen
Definition
components of the basal ganglia involved with the control and initiation of motor movement. Affected by Huntington's disease. Adjacent to one another.
Term
Substantia Nigra
Definition
region of dark colored neurons in the upper brainstem that sends axons to the caudate nucleus and putamen. Effected by Parkinson's disease.
Term
Cerebral Cortex
Definition
thin outer layer of the brain's cerebrum that is responsible for movement, perception, thinking and memory.
Term
Sensory Cortex
Definition
region of the cerebral cortex that is involved in receiving sensory messages.
Term
Motor Cortex
Definition
region of the cerebral cortex that transmits messages to muscles. Controls intentional body movement.
Term
Association Cortex
Definition
the largest portion of the cerebral cortex; involved in integrating sensory and motor messages as well as processing higher functions such as thinking, interpreting, and remembering.
Term
Frontal Lobe
Definition
largest, foremost lobe in cerebral cortex; important region for movement, emotion, and memory.
Term
Broca's Area
Definition
region of the left frontal lobe that is the primary brain center for controlling speech.
Term
Parietal Lobe
Definition
region of the cerebral cortex located just behind the central fissure and above the lateral fissure. contains the somatosensory cortex as well as association areas that process sensory information received by somatosensory cortex.
Term
Somatosensory Cortex
Definition
area of the parietal lobe, directly across from the motor cortex in the frontal lobe, which receives sensory information about touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and body postition.
Term
Occipital Lobe
Definition
region at the rear of the cerebral cortex that consists primarily of visual cortex.
Term
Vissual Cortex
Definition
portion of the occipital lobe that integrates sensory information received from the yes into electrical patterns that the brain translates into vision.
Term
Temporal Lobe
Definition
region of the cerebral cortex located below the lateral fissure that contains the auditory cortex.
Term
Auditory Cortex
Definition
region of the temporal lobe located just below the lateral fissure that is involved in responding to auditory signals, particularly the sound of human speech.
Term
Wernicke's Area
Definition
area of the left temporal lobe that is the brain's primary area for understanding speech.
Term
Agnosia
Definition
an inability to know or recognize objects through the senses usually caused by brain injury or disease. Visual agnosia is the failure to recognize or identify objects visually even though they can be seen.
Term
Propagnosia
Definition
an inability to visually recognize particular faces usually caused by brain disease or injury. Patients can see a face but may not be able to recognize it as familiar.
Term
Lateralization of Function
Definition
degree to which a particular function, such as the understanding of speech, is controlled by one rather than both hemispheres.
Term
Corpus Callosum
Definition
broad band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex.
Term
Lesion Production
Definition
technique for studying the brain that involves surgical damage to a precise region.
Term
Brain Stimulation
Definition
technique for studying the brain that involves stimulating precise regions with a weak electric current.
Term
Electrical Recording
Definition
technique for studying the brain in which tiny wires implanted in the brain are used to record neural electrical activity.
Term
Electroencephalography
Definition
technique used to measure and record electrical activity of the cortex
Term
Computerized Axial Tomography
Definition
a procedure used to locate brain abnormalities that involves rotating an X-ray scanner around the skull to produce an accurate image of a living brain.
Term
Position Emission Tomography
Definition
technique for studying the brain that involves injecting a subject with a glucose-like sugar tagged with a radioactive isotope that accumulates in brain cells in direct proportion to their activity level.
Term
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Definition
procedure for studying the brain that uses radio waves to excite hydrogen protons in the brain tissue, creating a magnetic field change.
Term
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Definition
a method of magnetic resonance imaging that measures energy released by brain cells that are active during a specific task.
Term
Endocrine System
Definition
system of ductless glands, including the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas, and gonads, that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream or lymph fluids.
Term
Hormones
Definition
chemical messengers secreted by the endocrine glands that act to regulate the functioning of specific body organs.
Term
Pituitary Gland
Definition
located directly below and connected to the hypothalamus. Produces a number of hormones, many of which trigger other endocrine glands to release hormones.
Term
Thyroid Gland
Definition
located in the neck. Influences metabolism, growth, and maturation. Produces thyroxine.
Term
Thyroxine
Definition
the major hormone produced by the thyroid gland that regulate metabolism.
Term
Adrenal Glands
Definition
located just above the kidneys, that influence emotional state, energy levels, and responses to stress by releasing hormones.
Term
Gonads
Definition
ovaries and testes; produce sex hormones that influence development of sexual systems and secondary sex characteristics as well as sexual motivation.
Term
Depressants
Definition
psychoactive drugs including opiates, sedatives, and alcohol, that have the effect of slowing down or depressing CNS activity.
Term
Sedatives
Definition
include tranquilizers, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines that induce relaxation, calmness, and sleep.
Term
Narcotics
Definition
also known as opiates, include opium, morphine, codeine, and heroin.
Term
Stimulants
Definition
psychoactive drugs including caffeine, nicotine, amphetamine, and cocaine, that stimulate the CNS by increasing the transmission of neural impulses.
Term
Amphetamines
Definition
a group of powerful stimulants, including bensedine, dexedrine, and ritalin, that dramatically increase alertness and promote feelings of euphoria.
Term
Hallucinogens
Definition
class of psychoactive drugs, including LSD and ecstasy, that alter sensory perceptions, thinking processes, and emotions, often causing delusions, hallucinations, and altered sense of time and space.
Term
LSD
Definition
derived from a fungus that grows on rye grass. Produces profound distortions of sensations, feelings, time, and thought.
Term
Marijuana
Definition
derived from the hemp plant cannabis sativa, containing the chemical THC.
Term
Anandamide
Definition
a naturally occurring substance that binds to THC receptors in the brain. Marijuana binds to these receptors.
Term
Nature-Nurture Controversy
Definition
controversy over whether individual differences are the results of genetic endowment or the consequence of learning.
Term
Maturation
Definition
orderly unfolding of certain patterns of behavior, such as language acquisition or walking, in accordance with genetic blueprints.
Term
Critical Periods
Definition
periods in the developmental sequence during which an organism must experience certain kinds of social or sensory experiences in order for normal development to take place.
Term
Imprinting
Definition
process by which certain infant animals, such as ducklings, learn to follow or approach the first moving object they see.
Term
Cross-Sectional Design
Definition
research design in which groups of subjects of different ages are assessed and compared at one point in time, so that conclusions may be drawn about behavior difference which may be related to age differences.
Term
Longitudinal Design
Definition
research design that evaluates a group of subjects at several points in time, over a number of years, to assess how certain characteristics or behaviors change during the course of development.
Term
Cross-Sequential Design
Definition
research design that combines elements of the cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. Subjects are observed more than once over a period of time.
Term
Gamete
Definition
the reproductive cells, or sperm and ovum. Also called germs cells.
Term
Chromosome
Definition
a strand of DNA that contains the organism's genes.
Term
DNA
Definition
chemical substance whose molecules, arranged in varying patterns, are the building blocks of genes.
Term
Identical Twins
Definition
Twins who share the same genetic code. Also known as one-egg or monozygotic twins.
Term
Fraternal Twins
Definition
twins produced when two ova are fertilized by two different sperm cells, so that their genetic codes are no more similar than those of any other siblings. Also known as dizygotic twins.
Term
Concordance
Definition
degree to which twins share a trait. Expressed as a correlation coefficient.
Term
Genotype
Definition
assortment of genes each individual inherits at conception.
Term
Phenotype
Definition
characteristics that result from the expression of various genotypes (for instance, brown eyes).
Term
Heterozygous
Definition
genotype that contains different genes for a triat.
Term
Homozygous
Definition
genotype that consists of the same genes for a trait.
Term
Dominant Gene
Definition
gene that prevails when paired with a recessive gene, so that it is always expressed in the phenotype.
Term
Recessive Gene
Definition
gene that is expressed in the phenotype only in the absence of a dominant gene, or when it is paired with a similar recessive gene.
Term
Sex-Linked Inheritance
Definition
genetic transmission involving genes that are carried only on the X chromosome.
Term
Huntington's Disease
Definition
a genetically transmitted disease that progressively destroys brain cells in adults.
Term
Phenylketonuria
Definition
disease caused by a recessive gene that results in the absence of an enzyme necessary to metabolize the milk protein phenylalanine.
Term
Down Syndrome
Definition
chromosomal disorder characterized by marked mental retardation as well as distinctive physical traits including short stature, a flattened skull and nose, and an extra fold of skin over the eyelid.
Term
Germinal Stage
Definition
first of three stages in prenatal development of a fetus. Spans for two weeks after fertilization. Zygote stage.
Term
Embryonic Stage
Definition
second stage of prenatal development, lasting from the beginning of the third week to the end of the eighth week after fertilization, characterized by fast growth and differentiation of the major body systems as well as vital organs.
Term
Fetus
Definition
term used to describe an unborn infant during the period from the beginning of the third month after fertilization until birth.
Term
Fetal Stage
Definition
third and final stage of prenatal development, extending from the beginning of the third month to birth, during which bone and muscle tissue form and the organs and body systems continue to develop.
Term
Cephalocaudal
Definition
pattern of physical and motor development that is normal among humans, in which the head and upper portion of the body develop first and most rapidly.
Term
Proximodistal
Definition
pattern of development normal to humans in which infants gain control over areas that are closest to the center of their bodies (upper arm before fingers)
Term
Rooting
Definition
infant reflex stimulated by a cheek stroked by a finger or nipple, causing head to turn and mouth to open and begin sucking (9 months)
Term
Moro
Definition
infant reflex stimulated by a sudden stimulus like being dropped or a gunshot- baby flattens (3 months)
Term
Darwinian
Definition
infant reflex stimulated by palm being stroked- baby makes strong fist. (2 months)
Term
Swimming
Definition
infant reflex stimulated by being put face down in water. Baby makes well coordinated swimming movements (6 months)
Term
Schemas
Definition
conceptual frameworks of memory that individuals use to make sense out of stored information. We use schemas to assimilate and organize processed information.
Term
Assimilation
Definition
the process by which individuals interpret new information in accordance with existing knowledge or schemas.
Term
Accomodation
Definition
the process of adjusting existing knowledge and schemas so that new information can fit more readily.
Term
Sensorimotor Stage
Definition
Piaget- period of development between brith and about age two during which infants learn about their worlds primarily through their senses and actions.
Term
Object Permanence
Definition
realization that objects continue to exist when they are not in view. Key achievement of the sensorimotor stage.
Term
Preoperational Stage
Definition
the second major stage of cognitive development (ages 2 to 7). Children can develop only limited concepts, and are unable to evaluate simultaneously more than one physical dimension.
Term
Centration
Definition
inability to take into account more than one perceptual factor at a time. Characteristic of preoperational stage.
Term
Decentration
Definition
ability to evaluate two or more physical dimensions simultaneously
Term
Conservation
Definition
the understanding that changing the form of an object does not necessarily change its essential character.
Term
Egocentrism
Definition
the tendency of young children to view the world as being centered around themselves.
Term
Concrete Operational Stage
Definition
ages 7 to 12. children begin to use logical mental operations and rules, mastering the concept of conservation.
Term
Formal Operational Stage
Definition
stage in which individuals acquire the ability to make complex deductions and solve problems by systematically testing hypotheses.
Term
Attachment
Definition
intense emotional tie between two individuals, such as an infant and a parent.
Term
Indiscriminate Attachment
Definition
attachment typically displayed by human infants during the first few months, when social behaviors are directed to virtually anyone.
Term
Specific Attachment
Definition
highly selective attachment often displayed by human infants between 6 and 18 months when increased responsiveness is displayed toward primary care-givers and distress may be displayed when separated from parents.
Term
Separate Attachment
Definition
attachment displayed by infants 12 to 18 months, when fear of strangers diminishes and interest in people other than primary caregivers develops.
Term
Permissive
Definition
parenting style in which parents adopt a hands-off policy, making few demands and showing reluctance to punish inappropriate behavior.
Term
Authoritarian
Definition
style of parenting in which parents rely on strictly enforced rules, leaving little room for children to discuss alternatives.
Term
Authoritative
Definition
style of parenting in which parents enforce clear rules and standards but also show respect for children's opinions.
Term
Trust vs Mistrust
Definition
Erikson's stage 1- within 12-18 months of life, infants acquire a sense of basic trust if basic needs are satisfied, or a sense of mistrust if needs are not satisfied.
Term
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
Definition
Eriksons stage 2- within 18 months and 3 years, children begin to assert some of their independence and individuality. When this behavior is encouraged, autonomy develops. When this behavior is condemned, shame develops.
Term
Initiative vs Guilt
Definition
Erikson's stage 3- within 3 to 5 years, children whose parents encourage inquisitiveness take initiative to explore, while children who are discouraged experience guilt.
Term
Industry vs Inferiority
Definition
Erikson's stage 4- within 6 to 11 years, children assess themselves in comparison to peers. Positive assessment leads to sense of achievement. Poor assessment leads to feelings of inferiority.
Term
Identity vs Role Confusion
Definition
Erikson's stage 5- within 12 to 18 years of age, and individual either integrates all of their experiences to form and identity, or fails to do so and experiences role confusion.
Term
Intimacy vs Isolation
Definition
Erikson's stage 6- adults either form close, intimate, meaningful relationships, or fail to do so and feel a sense of isolation and have trouble becoming close with others.
Term
Generativity vs Stagnation
Definition
Erikson's stage 7- further alon gin adulthood, either adults focus on achieving aims, finding purpose, and contributing to the well being of others, or else stagnate in personal growth and become self-centered.
Term
Ego Integrity vs Despair
Definition
Erikson's stage 8- last stage when adults reflect on life, and feel either accomplishment or failure.
Term
Gender Identity
Definition
an individual's subjective sense of being male or female.
Term
H-Y Antigen
Definition
substance that appears to trigger the transformation of gonads into testes within the first few weeks of prenatal development.
Term
Sexual Differentiation
Definition
process during development where male and female characteristics begin to take form.
Term
Hermaphrodite
Definition
individual with ambiguous or contradictory sex characteristics resulting from abnormal differentiation of internal and external sex structures.
Term
Fetally Androgenized Female
Definition
chromosomally normal female who, as a results of excessive exposure to androgens during prenatal sex differentiation, develops external genitalia resembling those of a male
Term
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
Definition
condition in which the body cells of a chromosomally normal male fetus are insensitive to the action of androgens, with the result that internal reproductive structures do not develop, external genitals fail to differentiate into a penis and scrotum, and testes do not descend.
Term
Gender Role
Definition
set of behaviors that is considered normal and appropriate for each sex in a society.
Term
Socialization
Definition
process by which society conveys behavioral expectations to an individual, through various agents such as parents, peers, and school.
Term
Puberty
Definition
approx. two year period of rapid physical changes that occur sometime between ages 7 and 16 in our society and culminate in sexual maturity.
Term
Adolescent Growth Spurt
Definition
period of accelerated growth that usually occurs within about two years after the onset of puberty.
Term
Gonadotropins
Definition
hormones released by the pituitary gland that stimulate production of testosterone in men and estrogen in women.
Term
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Definition
physical characteristics typical of mature males or females-such ad facial, body and pubic hair-that develop during puberty as a result of the release of testosterone or estrogen.
Term
Preconventional Morality
Definition
Kholberg's lowest level of moral development- individuals have not internalized a personal code of morality. stages 1 and 2- punishment and obedience (act is moral if rewarded), instrumental orientation (act is moral if satisfies needs)
Term
Conventional Morality
Definition
Kholberg's second level of moral development, in which motivating force for moral behavior is the desire to help others to gain approval, consisting of stages 3 and 4- an act is moral if it pleases/helps others or leads to approval, an act is moral if you are doing your duty/following law to maintain social order
Term
Postconventional Morality
Definition
Kholberg's third level of moral development in which individuals are guided by values agreed upon by society/ ethical universal principles (stages 5 and 6)
Term
Climacteric
Definition
physiological changes, including menopause, that occur during a woman's transition from fertility to infertility.
Term
Menopause
Definition
cessation of menstruation that takes place during the climacteric.
Term
Andropause
Definition
a condition of low testosterone often attributed to the natural loss of testosterone production in older men.
Term
Crystalized Intelligence
Definition
intelligence that results from accumulated knowledge, including knowledge of how to reason, language skills, and understanding of technology.
Term
Fluid Intelligence
Definition
ability to perceive and draw inferences about relationships among patterns of stimuli, to conceptualize abstract information, and to solve problems
Term
Cohabitate
Definition
living together in a sexual relationship without being married
Term
Organ Reserve
Definition
potential ability of organs such as the heart, lungs and kidneys to increase their output to a level several times greater than normal under emergency conditions.
Term
Senile Dementia
Definition
collective term describing a variety of conditions sometimes associated with aging, including memory deficits, forgetfulness, disorientation for time and place, declining ability to think, and so forth.
Term
Alzheimer's Disease
Definition
an incurable disease that destroys the neural tissue resulting in an impaired capacity to think, relate to others, and care for oneself.
Term
Social Support
Definition
an environment in which a person has close relatives or personal friends.
Term
Social Isolation
Definition
an environment lacking social interaction, such as one in which an elderly person lives alone.
Term
Sensations
Definition
basic, immediate experiences that a stimulus such as a sound elicits in a sense organ such as the ear.
Term
Perception
Definition
process of interpreting, organizing, and often elaborating on sensations.
Term
Transduction
Definition
process by which sensory organs transform mechanical, chemical, or light energy into the electrochemical energy that is generated by neurons firing.
Term
Psychophysics
Definition
study of the relationship between the physical aspects of external stimuli and our own perceptions of these stimuli.
Term
Threshold
Definition
minimum level of intensity or strength of a stimulus that is sufficient to activate a sensory process (for instance, the minimum number of molecules that must be present in the air for us to smell a substance)
Term
Absolute Threshold
Definition
minimum physical intensity of a stimulus that can be perceived by an observer 50-percent of the time.
Term
Difference Threshold
Definition
the minimum difference in intensity that we can distinguish between two stimuli 50 percent of the time (just noticeable difference).
Term
Weber's Law
Definition
major principle of sensation based on the fact that for various stimulus intensities, the difference threshold tends to be a constant fraction of the stimulus: As the strength of the original stimulus increases, the magnitude of the change must also increase in order for a just noticeable difference to be perceived.
Term
Attention
Definition
psychological selection mechanism that determines which stimuli an organism responds to or perceives.
Term
Sensory Adaptation
Definition
in perception, the decrease in the response of sensory receptors to stimuli when exposed to continual, unchanging stimulation.
Term
Signal Detection Theory
Definition
theory that says our ability to detect a sensory stimulus depends not only on the intensity of the signal but also on variables such as distractions and motivation.
Term
Brightness
Definition
intensity of light, measured by the number of photons, or particles of electromagnetic radiation, emitted by a light source.
Term
Hue
Definition
the color we perceive, determined partly by the wavelength of light and partly by the complex process by which an organism's visual system mixes wavelengths.
Term
Saturation
Definition
proportion of colored or chromatic light to non-colored or nonchromatic light, which determines how colorful light appears.
Term
Accomodation (light)
Definition
the focusing process in which the lens adjusts its shape, depending on the distance between the eye and the object viewed, in order to project a clear image consistently onto the retina.
Term
Retina
Definition
thin membrane at the back of the eye containing photoreceptors called rods and cones. The retina functions to record images.
Term
Rods
Definition
photoreceptor cells distributed across the inner layer of the retina that are important in peripheral vision and seeing in dim light.
Term
Cones
Definition
photoreceptor cells distributed across the inner layer of the retina that play an important role in the perception of color.
Term
Dark Adaptation
Definition
process by which an organism's vision gradually becomes more sensitive to minimal levels of light due to a chemical change in the rods and cones of the retina.
Term
Light Adaptation
Definition
process by which an organism's vision adjusts to bright lighting, due to a chemical change within the rods and cones of the retina.
Term
Subtractive Color Mixing
Definition
color mixing process that occurs when pigments are mixed, so that when light falls on the colored object some wavelengths are absorbed (or subtracted) and others are reflected.
Term
Additive Color Mixing
Definition
color mixing that occurs when lights of different wavelengths simultaneously stimulate the retina, so that color perception depends on the adding or combing of these wavelenghts.
Term
Young-Helmholtz Theory (Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision)
Definition
the postulation that the human eye contains three types of color receptors (for red, green and blue) which form the basis for our perception of all colors.
Term
Opponent-Process Theory of Color Vision
Definition
theory that explains color vision based on six primary colors, which are grouped into three pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white). Receptors in the eye are sensitive to specific pairs, and the presence of one member of a pair inhibits vision of the other.
Term
Loudness
Definition
in hearing, the intensity of a sound as measured by decibels. Loudness is determined by the amplitude of a sound wave.
Term
Pitch
Definition
dimension of hearing that determines how high or low a sound is, measured in hertz. Pitch is determine by the frequency of a sound wave.
Term
Timbre
Definition
quality of complex sound that is a product of the combination of fundamental frequency and additional frequency components called overtones.
Term
Tympanic Membrane
Definition
membrane stretched across the end of the auditory canal that vibrates in response to sound waves- eardrum
Term
Tympanic Membrane
Definition
membrane stretched across the end of the auditory canal that vibrates in response to sound waves- eardrum
Term
Ossicles
Definition
set of three tiny linked bones (malleus, incus, stapes) in the middle ear that receives a sound stimulus from the tympanic membrane and transfers it to the oval window of the inner ear. Auditory nerve.
Term
Cochlea
Definition
coiled, fluid-filled chamber in the inner ear with two flexible surfaces; the oval window and the round window.
Term
Basilar Membrane
Definition
membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear that vibrates in response to pressure waves, causing auditory hair cells on the adjoining organ of Corti to release neurotransmitters that activate neurons of the auditory nerve.
Term
Organ of Corti
Definition
structure in the inner ear located directly above the basilar membrane, consisting of auditory hair cells, a tectoral membrane, and cilia.
Term
Place Theory of Pitch Discrimination
Definition
theory that we discriminate different pitches because sound waves of different frequency displace different regions on the cochlea's basilar membrane.
Term
Frequency Theory of Pitch Discrimination
Definition
theory that perception of low tones depends on the frequency with which auditory hair cells in the inner ear's organs of Corti trigger the firing of neurons in the auditory nerve.
Term
Volley Theory
Definition
related to the frequency theory of pitch discrimination. Postulates that since single auditory neurons cannot fire rapidly enough to enable us to perceive tones in the 1000-4000 Hz range, pitch perception is made possible by groups of interrelated neurons firing in concert.
Term
Auditory Localization
Definition
ability to locate the origins of sounds by differences from ear to ear in variables such as intensity and the time the sound arrives at each ear.
Term
Sensorineural Hearing Loss
Definition
hearing loss caused by damage to either the hair cells of the inner ear or the auditory nerve.
Term
Conduction Hearing Loss
Definition
hearing loss caused by the failure of the outer and middle ear to conduct sound energy to the inner ear's receptors, sometimes due to infection or to buildup of ear wax.
Term
Conduction Hearing Loss
Definition
hearing loss caused by the failure of the outer and middle ear to conduct sound energy to the inner ear's receptors, sometimes due to infection or to buildup of ear wax.
Term
Gate-Control Theory
Definition
theory that neural gates in the spinal cord allow passage of pain signals to the brain; these gates may be closed by the simultaneous firing of nonpain nerve fibers, so that pain is not perceived.
Term
Substance P
Definition
a peptide neurotransmitter that signals pain from peripheral nerve fibers to the spinal cord.
Term
Endorphins
Definition
a class of neurotransmitter substances that function to inhibit the transmission of pain information. Morphine and other opiates act by facilitating endorphin transmission.
Term
Periaqueductal Gray Area
Definition
a region of the brain stem that controls pain signals sent to higher brain centers. Also receives signals from endorphin-containing neurons for pain anaglesia.
Term
Perceptual Organization
Definition
process by which we structure elementary sensations (such as the sight of lines, brightness, and points) into the objects we perceive.
Term
Figure
Definition
in perception, the part of an image on which we focus our attention.
Term
Ground
Definition
in perception, the background against which the figure that we focus on stands.
Term
Perceptual Grouping
Definition
tendency to organize patterns of stimuli into larger units according to proximity, similarity, and good continuation.
Term
Proximity
Definition
perceptual grouping principle whereby, all else being equal, we tend to organize perceptions by grouping elements that are the nearest to each other.
Term
Similarity
Definition
in perception, the principle that we tend to group elements that are similar to each other.
Term
Closure
Definition
perceptual organizing principle that we tend to perceive incomplete figures as complete.
Term
Selective Attention
Definition
the process of focusing on one or a few stimuli of particular significance while ignoring others.
Term
Binocular Cues
Definition
visual cues for depth or distance, such as binocular disparity and convergence, that depend on both eyes working together.
Term
Monocular Cues
Definition
distance cues such as linear perspective and height on a plane that can be used with just one eye.
Term
Binocular (Retinal) Disparity
Definition
the difference in the retinal image of an object as seen from each eye, due to the difference in viewing angles, that provides an important binocular cue for depth.
Term
Convergence
Definition
binocular distance cue based on the fact that the two eyes must converge or rotate toward the inside to perceive objects closer than about 25 feet. The closer the object, the more rotation is necessary and the more muscle tension created.
Term
Height on a Plane
Definition
important monocular depth cue based on the fact that objects that are highest on one's plane of view appear to be farthest away.
Term
Overlap
Definition
important monocular distance cue based on the fact that objects close to us tend to block out parts of objects that are farther away. Interposition.
Term
Linear Perspective
Definition
important monocular distance cue based on the fact that parallel lines converge when stretched into the distance.
Term
Relative Size
Definition
monocular distance cue based on the fact that objects of the same size appear to be smaller the farther they are from the viewer.
Term
Texture Gradients
Definition
monocular distance cue based on the fact that textured surfaces (such as a grassy lawn) smoother, denser, and less textured when they are far from the viewer than when they are close.
Term
Aerial (Atmospheric) Perspective
Definition
monocular distance cue based on the fact that distant objects tend to appear more fuzzy and less clear than those close to the viewer due to dust and haze.
Term
Relative Motion
Definition
monocular distance cue based on the fact that moving objects appear to move a greater distance when they are close to the viewer than when they are far away.
Term
Direct Perception
Definition
the interpretation of sensory information directly by the brain as opposed to perceptual interpretation resulting from cognitive processing.
Term
Gibson's Theory of Direct Perception
Definition
a theory of perception that argues that all information necessary for perception is available to the sensory system and no cognitive processing is necessary to complete the perceptual process.
Term
Invariant
Definition
sensory information from the environment that is constant from one experience to the next. Texture is invariant because it is always finer at close distances than is at further distances.
Term
Visual Cliff
Definition
device that produces the illusion of a cliff, allowing researchers to test the ability of animals to perceive and respond to depth cues.
Term
Size Constancy
Definition
one form of perceptual constancy. Although the retinal image of an object becomes smaller as the object recedes into the distance (or larger as it approaches), the viewer adjust for this change and perceives the object to be constant in size.
Term
Perceptual Constancy
Definition
the fact that objects are normally perceived to be constant in size, color or brightness, and shape, despite the fact that their retinal images change according to different conditions.
Term
Brightness Constancy
Definition
we perceive objects that we see at night or in poor lighting to be the same brightness as they appear during the day.
Term
Color Constancy
Definition
we perceive objects that we see in the dark to be the same color as they appear during the day even though their retinal images change.
Term
Shape Constancy
Definition
we perceive objects as maintaining the same shape even though their retinal images change when we view them from different angles.
Term
Illusion
Definition
false or inaccurate perception that differs from the actual physical state of the perceived object.
Term
Perceptual Set
Definition
tendency to see, hear, smell, feel or taste what we expect or what is consistent with our preconceived notions
Term
Selective Perception
Definition
a form of perceptual set; the tendency to perceive stimuli that are consistent with expectations and to ignore those that are inconsistent.
Term
Biological rhythms
Definition
natural variations in biological functions, hormonal activity, temperature and sleep that typically cycle every 24 to 25 hours.
Term
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
Definition
an area of the hypothalamus that is located above the optic chiasm. The SCN is also referred to as a biological clock because damage to this area disrupts daily cycles in sleep and other biological functions.
Term
Sleep
Definition
Natural, periodically occurring state of rest characterized by reduced activity, lessened responsiveness to stimuli, and distinctive patterns of brain activity.
Term
REM Sleep
Definition
state of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, and often associated with dreaming.
Term
NREM Sleep
Definition
stages of sleep during which rapid eye movements typically do not occur. Dreaming occurs less frequently.
Term
Stage 1 Sleep
Definition
light sleep that occurs just after dozing off, characterized by brain waves called theta waves.
Term
Stage 2 Sleep
Definition
stage of sleep that typically follows Stage 1, characterized by brief bursts of brain activity called sleep spindles as well as K-complex responses to stimuli such as noises.
Term
Stage 3 Sleep
Definition
stage of sleep that typically follows Stage 2 sleep, characterized by an EEG tracing 20 to 50 percent of which consists of delta waves. No eye movements.
Term
Stage 4 Sleep
Definition
deepest level of sleep, characterized by an EEG tracing exceeding 50 percent delta waves and virtually no eye movements.
Term
Reticular Activating System
Definition
set of neural circuits extending from the lower brain up to the thalamus that plays a critical role in controlling arousal and alertness. Reticular formation.
Term
Raphe System
Definition
a group of serotonin-containing neurons extending from the raphe nuclei, located in the pons and medulla, throughout the limbic system and forebrain.
Term
Manifest Content
Definition
in psychoanalytic theory, the disguised version of the latent content, or true meaning of dreams.
Term
Latent Content
Definition
in psychoanalysis theory, the hidden content or true meaning of dreams.
Term
Insomnia
Definition
sleep disorder characterized by a consistent inability to get to sleep or by frequent awakenings during sleep.
Term
Narcolepsy
Definition
sleep disorder characterized by falling asleep suddenly and uncontrollably.
Term
Nightmare
Definition
bad dream that occurs during REM sleep
Term
Sleep Terror
Definition
sleep disorder in which a person suddenly awakens from Stage 4 sleep in a panic, typically with no recollection of a bad dream.
Term
Sleep Apnea
Definition
sleep disorder characterized by irregular breathing during sleep
Term
Sleepwalking
Definition
sleep disorder, also known as somnambulism, characterized by walking in one's sleep during Stage 3 or 4 sleep.
Term
Sleep Talking
Definition
also referred to as somniloquy, the production of speech or speech sounds associated with sleep without subjective awakeness.
Term
Hypnosis
Definition
state of altered consciousness characterized by a deep relaxation and detachment as well as heightened suggestibility to the hypnotist's directives.
Term
Posthypnotic Suggestion
Definition
suggestion or instruction to a hypnotized person that motivates that person to perform an action or actions after returning to a normal state of consciousness.
Term
Dissociation Theory
Definition
Hilgard's theory of hypnosis in which our behaviors become separated from or dissociated from our awareness
Term
Learning
Definition
relatively enduring change in potential behavior that results from experience.
Term
Associative Learning
Definition
learning by making an association between two stimulus events (Pavlovian conditioning) or by learning an association between a response and its consequence (operant conditioning)
Term
Pavlovian Conditioning
Definition
learning that takes place when a neutral stimulus (CS) is paired with a stimulus (UCS) that already produces a response (UCR). After conditioning, the organism responds to the neutral stimulus (CS) in some way. The response to the CS is called a conditioned response (CR).
Term
Operant Conditioning
Definition
learning an association between one's behavior and its consequence (reinforcement or punishment)
Term
Template Learning
Definition
learning that depends on a particular type of perceptual experience during a critical time in development. Examples include imprinting and language learning.
Term
Unconditioned Stimulus
Definition
a stimulus that elicits an unlearned response or reflex.
Term
Unconditioned Response
Definition
an unlearned response or reflex caused by an unconditioned stimulus.
Term
Conditioned Stimulus
Definition
a stimulus that elicits a response only after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus.
Term
Conditioned Response
Definition
a learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
Term
Acquisition
Definition
the process of learning to associate a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. In operant learning, the process of learning to associate responses with a reinforcer or punisher.
Term
Delayed Conditioning
Definition
learning that takes place when the conditioned stimulus is presented before the unconditioned stimulus is presented and continues until the organism begins responding to the unconditioned stimulus.
Term
Simultaneous Conditioning
Definition
learning that takes place when the conditioned stimulus is presented at the same time as the unconditioned stimulus.
Term
Trace Conditioning
Definition
learning that takes place when presentation of the conditioned stimulus begins and ends before the unconditioned stimulus is presented.
Term
Backward Conditioning
Definition
presenting the unconditioned stimulus prior to the conditioned stimulus. Results in little or no conditioning.
Term
Extinction
Definition
the process by which a conditioned response is eliminated through repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, the process of eliminating a response by discontinuing reinforcement for it.
Term
Reinstatement
Definition
the reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction has taken place.
Term
Spontaneous Recovery
Definition
the spontaneous reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction has taken place.
Term
Generalization
Definition
process by which an organism responds to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, without undergoing conditioning for each similar stimulus.
Term
Discrimination
Definition
the process by which responses are restricted to specific stimuli.
Term
Second-Order Conditioning
Definition
a learned association between two conditioned stimuli (CS2-CS1) that can occur following conditioning to CS1 and an unconditioned stimulus.
Term
Law of Effect
Definition
theory originally proposed by Edward Thorndike that is the foundation of the operant conditioning theory; Behavior followed by reinforcement will be strengthened while behavior followed by punishment will be weakened.
Term
Cumulative Record
Definition
a chart recording of operant responses over time. Time increments are indicated along the horizontal axis and operant responses along the vertical axis. As response rate increases the slope of the record increases.
Term
Discriminative Stimulus
Definition
a stimulus that controls a response by signaling the availability of reinforcement.
Term
Reinforcement
Definition
any procedure where an event following a specific response increases the probability that the response will occur.
Term
Positive Reinforcement
Definition
any stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of the response.
Term
Negative Reinforcement
Definition
any stimulus that increases the probability of a response through its removal. Example: pounding on the wall may be maintained by the termination of loud noise (negative reinforcer) in an adjoining room.
Term
Primary Reinforcer
Definition
a stimulus that satisfies a biologically based drive or need such as hunger, thirst or sleep.
Term
Conditioned Reinforcer
Definition
a stimulus that takes on reinforcing properties after being associated with a primary reinforcer.
Term
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
Definition
the presentation of a reinforcer for each occurence of a specific behavior.
Term
Partial Reinforcement Schedule
Definition
a schedule that reinforces behavior only part of the time, for example, a ratio or interval schedule.
Term
Partial Reinforcement Effect
Definition
behaviors that are acquired on partial instead of continuous reinforcement schedules tend to be established more slowly, but are more persistent when no reinforcement is provided.
Term
Fixed Ratio Schedule
Definition
partial reinforcement schedule wherein reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses.
Term
Variable Ratio Schedule
Definition
partial reinforcement schedule where reinforcement is provided after an average of a specific number of responses occur.
Term
Fixed Interval Schedule
Definition
partial reinforcement schedule wherein reinforcement is provided or the first response after a specified period of time has elapsed.
Term
Variable Interval Schedule
Definition
partial reinforcement schedule where opportunities for reinforcement occur at variable time intervals.
Term
Shaping
Definition
a technique in which responses that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior are reinforced, step by step, until the desired behavior occurs.
Term
Modeling
Definition
learning process wherein an individual acquires a behavior by observing someone else performing that behavior. Observational learning.
Term
Punishment
Definition
a procedure in which the presentation of a stimulus following a response leads to a decrease in the strength or frequency of the response.
Term
Two-Factor Theory of Learning
Definition
a theory of avoidance learning that involves both classical and operant conditioning.
Term
Cognitive Learning Theory
Definition
theoretical perspective that attempts to study the role of thinking and memory processes in learning.
Term
Latent Learning
Definition
learning that is not demonstrated by an immediately observable change in behavior.
Term
Cognitive Map
Definition
internal representations of the relationship between events or spatial elements.
Term
Observational Learning
Definition
learning process wherein an individual acquires a behavior by observing someone else performing that behavior.
Term
Social Learning Theory
Definition
theory that emphasizes the role of observation in learning.
Term
Synaptic Facilitation
Definition
an increase in the size of a postsynaptic potential to weak stimulus resulting from neuronal changes that underlie learning and memory.
Term
Long Term Potentiation
Definition
an increase in a neuron's sensitivity to fire following a burst of signals to that neuron's dendrites.
Term
Memory
Definition
process or processes of storing newly acquired information for later recall; recall for a specific experience, or the total collection of remembered experiences stored in our brains.
Term
Encoding
Definition
the process of perceiving information, then categorizing or organizing it in a meaningful way so that it can be more easily stored and recalled.
Term
Storage
Definition
process by which encoded material is retained over time in memory.
Term
Retrieval
Definition
process by which information stored in memory is accessed.
Term
Sensory Memory
Definition
first system in the 3-step model of memory, in which brief impressions from any of the senses are stored fleetingly, disappearing within a few seconds if they are not transferred to short-term memory.
Term
Short-Term Memory
Definition
immediate recollection of stimuli that have just been perceived; unless it is transferred to long-term memory, information in this memory system is usually retained only momentarily.
Term
Long-Term Memory
Definition
information transferred from short-term to long-term memory may be stored for periods of time from minutes to years-perhaps even indefinitely
Term
Iconic Memory
Definition
visual sensory memory, including fleeting impressions of what we see.
Term
Echoic Memory
Definition
auditory sensory memory; fleeting impressions of what we hear.
Term
Chunking
Definition
process of grouping items into longer meaningful units to make them easier to remember
Term
Procedural Memory
Definition
recall for how to perform skills such as bicycle riding or swimming.
Term
Declarative Memory
Definition
recall of specific facts, such as information read in a book.
Term
Episodic Memory
Definition
autobiographical memories about one's own experiences.
Term
Semantic Memory
Definition
general, nonpersonal knowledge about the meaning of facts and concepts.
Term
Dual-Code Model of Memory
Definition
theory that memories may be stored either in sensory codes or in verbal codes.
Term
Eidetic Imagery
Definition
also known as photographic memory, the very rare ability to retain large amounts of visual material with great accuracy for several minutes.
Term
Mnemonic Device
Definition
memory system, such as clustering or acrostics, that organizes material in a meaningful way to make it easier to remember.
Term
Clustering
Definition
mnemonic device involving grouping items into categories.
Term
Acrostics
Definition
sentences whose first letters serve as cues for recalling specific information; a mnemonic device.
Term
Acronym
Definition
meaningful arrangement of letters that provides a cur for recalling information; a mnemonic device.
Term
Maintenance Rehearsal
Definition
system for remembering that involves repeatedly rehearsing information without attempting to find meaning in it.
Term
Elaborative Rehearsal
Definition
system for remembering that involves using mnemonic devices; it is more effective than maintenance rehearsal.
Term
Recall
Definition
in memory tests, a subject's ability to reproduce information that he or she was previously exposed to. Fill-in-the-blank and essay questions test recall.
Term
Recognition
Definition
in memory tests, a subjects ability to recognize whether he or she has been previously exposed to information. Multiple-choice and true-falst questions test recognition.
Term
Relearning
Definition
technique for testing memory that involves measuring how much more quickly a person can relearn material that was learned at some previous time.
Term
Overlearning
Definition
technique for memorizing material that involves rehearsing information after it has already been learned.
Term
Explicit Memory
Definition
memories that you can recall through conscious effort.
Term
Implicit Memory
Definition
memories that are unavailable to conscious awareness, but contribute to explicit memories.
Term
Misinformation Effect
Definition
the presentation of misleading information that leads to people to erroneous reports of that misinformation.
Term
State-Dependent Memory
Definition
phenomenon wherein recall of particular events, experiences or information is aided by the subject being in the same context or physiological state in which the information was first encoded.
Term
Flashbulb Memory
Definition
An apparent vivid recall for an event associated with extreme emotion or uniqueness, such as the assassination of a president or the bombing of Iraq.
Term
Retroactive Interference
Definition
in memory, the phenomenon that occurs when a later event interferes with the recall of earlier information.
Term
Proactive Interference
Definition
in memory, the phenomenon that occurs when earlier learning disrupts memory for later learning.
Term
Serial Position Effect
Definition
tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle.
Term
Organic Amnesia
Definition
memory deficits caused by altered physiology of the brain, which might result from an accident or physical illnesses.
Term
Retrograde Amnesia
Definition
memory loss for certain details or events that occurred prior to experiencing brain trauma.
Term
Anterograde Amnesia
Definition
memory loss for information processed after an individual experiences brain trauma caused by injury or chronic alcoholism.
Term
Hebbian Rule
Definition
information is transferred to long-term memory when new connections between neurons are formed. These changes are thought to involve structural changes in the synapses between neurons, which occur when cell assemblies are simultaneously activated.
Term
Long-Term Potentiation
Definition
an increase in a neuron's sensitivity to fire following a burst of signals to that neuron's dendrites.
Term
Engram
Definition
a neural representation of a specific memory.
Term
Consolidation
Definition
process by which information is transferred from short-term electrical activation of neuronal circuits to a longer-term memory coded by physical cell changes in the brain.
Term
Thought
Definition
any cognitive processes directed toward problem solving, understanding language, memory retrieval, and perceiving patterns in sensory inputs.
Term
Covert Behavior
Definition
behavior that is unobservable in another person. Thinking is an example of covert behavior.
Term
Bottom-Up Processing
Definition
refers to perceptual processing beginning in peripheral sensory receptors and then activating higher cortical areas.
Term
Top-Down Processing
Definition
refers to a sequence of neural activation beginning in higher cortical such as the prefrontal cortex before activating brain areas involved in perception.
Term
Concepts
Definition
cognitive categories for grouping events, objects, or processes.
Term
Exemplar Theory
Definition
theory that the natural concepts we form in everyday life are structured around prototypes or typical representations of categories (such as robins and jays as protoypes of the concept bird)
Term
Prototype
Definition
best or most typical representative of a category around which we often structure our concept of that category.
Term
Functional Fixedness
Definition
refers to a failure to use familiar objects or strategies in novel or unfamiliar settings to solve problems.
Term
Trial and Error
Definition
problem-solving strategy that involves trying possible solutions, one by one, to see which one is correct.
Term
Testing Hypotheses
Definition
problem-solving strategy that involves formulating specific hypotheses that generate relatively efficient approaches to solving a problem, then testing these hypotheses in a systematic fashion.
Term
Algorithms
Definition
problem-solving strategy that involves a systematic exploration of every possible solution; computers and people may use algorithms to find the correct answer.
Term
Heuristics
Definition
rule-of-thumb (quick fix) problem solving strategies such as means-ends-analysis and working backward.
Term
Means-Ends-Analysis
Definition
common heuristic problem-solving strategy that involves identifying the difference between an original state and a desired goal, then progressing through a series of subgoals to reach the solution.
Term
Working Backward
Definition
common heuristic problem-solving strategy that starts with describing the goal, then defines the step that directly precedes the goal, and works backward in this manner until the steps needed to reach the goal are defined.
Term
Mental Set
Definition
in problem solving, a tendency to approach a problem or situation in a predetermined way, regardless of the requirements of the specific problem.
Term
Confirmation Bias
Definition
in problem solving, the tendency to seek out evidence that confirms a hypothesis and to overlook contradictory evidence.
Term
Inductive Reasoning
Definition
reasoning that draws broad conclusions by generalizing from specific instances.
Term
Deductive Reasoning
Definition
reasoning that begins with a general premise that is believed to be true, then draws conclusions about specific instances based on this premise.
Term
Syllogism
Definition
argument consisting of two or more premises, followed by a statement of conclusion that may or may not follow logically from the premises.
Term
Belief-Bias Effect
Definition
tendency to accept conclusions that conform to one's beliefs, and reject conclusions that do not, regardless of how logical these conclusions are.
Term
Representative Heuristic
Definition
strategy for categorizing an object or situation based on one's preconceived notion of characteristics that are typical of that category.
Term
Gambler's Fallacy
Definition
an incorrect assumption that randomness must result in an increase or decrease in the probability of an event in repeated trials when the event has only rarely or never occurred even though the probability of the event remains the same.
Term
Availability Heuristic
Definition
approach to decision making based on information assessed from memory. It assumes that the probability of an event is related to how frequently it occurred in the past, and that events occurring more frequently are easier to remember.
Term
Somatic Marker
Definition
an emotion and its corresponding feeling attached to possible outcomes of a decision process.
Term
Psycholinguistics
Definition
psychological study of how sounds and symbols are translated to meaning, and of the cognitive processes that are involved in the acquisition and use of language.
Term
Phonemes
Definition
individual sounds-such as those represented by s and sh in the english spelling system- that are the basic structural elements of language.
Term
Morpheme
Definition
smallest unit of meaning in a given language.
Term
Syntax
Definition
the set of language rules that governs how words can be combined to form meaningful phrases and sentences.
Term
Semantics
Definition
study of meaning in language.
Term
Language Acquisition Device
Definition
according to the genetic or nativist view, the prewiring that gives humans the inate ability to learn and understand language.
Term
Broca's Area
Definition
region of the left frontal lobe that is the primary brain center for controlling speech.
Term
Wernicke's Area
Definition
area of the left temporal lobe that is the brain's primary area for understanding speech.
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