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Iyatunde M- Quiz 2
N/A
67
Psychology
Undergraduate 2
04/08/2015

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
Persuasion
Definition
}Neither good nor bad, good= education,            bad= propaganda
}Thoughts to persuasive messages analyzed

 

}The goal is always behavior change- the way in which people get thinking is most important
Term
Different paths 
Definition
}Central route to persuasion- occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts- more thoughtful, audience is analytical and motivated

 

}Peripheral route to persuasion- occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as speaker’s attractiveness- use heuristics, audience is less involved  
Term
Elements of Persuasion
Definition
}Communicator- must possess credibility- believability and is perceived as both expert and trustworthy

 

}Expertise- perceived knowledge, speaking confidently, charismatic, energetic most convincing
Term
Elements of Persuasion Cont.
Definition
}Trustworthiness- higher if audience believes communicator is not trying to persuade them.
}We perceive as sincere those who argue against their own self interest- be willing to suffer for beliefs, Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela

 

}Trustworthiness and credibility increase when people talk fast
Term
Elements of Persuasion Cont. 
Definition
}Attractiveness- having qualities that appeal to an audience. An appealing communicator (often someone similar to the audience) is most persuasive on matters of subjective preference

 

}Forms- physical attractiveness, similarity- we tend to like people who are like us, salespeople taught to “mimic and mirror.”
Term
Elements of Persuasion Cont.
Definition
}The Message Content- depends on the audience, reason vs. emotion etc.
}Good feelings- enhance emotion partly by enhancing positive thinking and partly by linking good feelings with the message

 

}As measured by implicit attitude test, products associated with humor were better liked
Term
Elements of Persuasion Cont.
Definition
}Fear- research shows that the more frightened and vulnerable people feel, the more they respond
}Works best if message leads people to fear severity and likelihood of event but to perceive a solution and feel capable of implementing it

 

}One vs. two sided appeals
Term
Elements Cont.
Definition
}Primacy effect- all things being equal, information presented first usually has the most influence, “first is best”

 

}Recency effect- information presented last sometimes has the most influence. Recencyeffects are less common than primacy effects, forgetting creates the recency effect
Term
How it is Said
Definition
}Channel of Communication- the way the message is delivered, face-to-face, in writing, on film or in some other way
}Repetition increases its fluency, which increases believability

 

}Experience based attitudes are more confident, more stable and less vulnerable to attack (as opposed to passively)
Term
Personal vs. Media Influence
Definition
}Studies demonstrate that major influence on us is not media but contact with other people

 

}Two-step flow of communication- process by which media influence often occurs through opinion leaders (talk show hosts, editorial columnists, doctors, scientists), who in turn influence others
Term
Comparing Media
Definition
}More lifelike the medium, the more persuasive its message: live (face to face), videotaped, audiotaped, written (but best comprehended and recalled when written)
Term
The Audience
Definition
}Age- many political attitudes formed by age 18
}Adolescent and early adulthood experiences are formative partly because they create deep and lasting impressions, “reminiscence bump”

 

}Distraction disarms counter arguing
Term
Stimulate people’s thinking…
Definition
}Use rhetorical questions
}Multiple speakers (i.e. each speaker voices different argument)
}By making people feel responsible for evaluating or passing along the message
}By repeating the message

 

}By getting people’s undistracted attention
Term
Extreme Persuasion- Cults
Definition
}Cult- group typically characterized by 1) distinctive rituals and beliefs related to its devotion to a god or person, 2) isolation from the surrounding “evil” culture and 3) a charismatic leader

 

}Compliance breeds acceptance- behavioral rituals, public recruitment, fundraising
Term
Cults Cont.
Definition
}Foot- in-the-Door technique, i.e. initially monetary offerings are first voluntary, then mandatory
}The Message- emotional, warm, accepting, very welcoming for lonely or depressed people

 

}Group effects- power of group to shape member behavior, “social implosion”- external ties weaker until group collapses inward socially
Term
Real World Implication
Definition
}Therapy, self help groups, sororities, religious affiliation, politics, educators- successfully utilize many of the same tactics, very blurry line

 

}Persuasive power is neither good nor bad, but is how we use it which determines whether its effect is destructive or constructive
Term
Resisting Persuasion
Definition
}Challenging Beliefs
}Developing Counterarguments
}Attitude inoculation- exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available (think flu vaccine)

 

}Children and advertising- prey on gullible, vulnerable
Term
What is a Group?
Definition
—Group- two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as “us.”

 

—Meets different human needs: to affiliate, to achieve and to gain a social identity
Term
The Presence of Others
Definition
—Helps or hinders performance???
—Social facilitation: 1) the tendency of people to perform simple or well-learned tasks better when others are present  

  2) the strengthening of dominant (prevalent, likely) responses in the presence of others\

 

—Research: social arousal facilitates dominant responses, whether right or wrong
Term
Presence of Others Cont.
Definition
—Athletes, actors and musicians do better when performing, i.e. home field advantage, 55-70%
—Crowding- intensifies positive or negative reactions, sometimes interferes with well learned behaviors, Why??

 

—Evaluation apprehension- concern for how others are evaluating us, dominant responses are strongest when we feel we are being evaluated 
Term
Less Effort in a Group?
Definition
—Social loafing- the tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable
—Getting “lost in the crowd” decreases evaluation concerns

 

—Collectivist cultures and women tend to exhibit less social loafing
Term
Social Loafing Cont.
Definition
—People in groups generally loaf less when the task is challenging, appealing, or involving

 

—Groups members will loaf less when they are friends or they feel identified with or indispensable to their group, cohesiveness enhances effort
Term
Losing Sense of Self 
Definition
—Deindividuation- loss of self awareness and evaluation apprehension; occurs in group situations that foster responsiveness to group norms, good or bad

 

—Group size- bigger the group, more group members can lose self awareness and become more prone
Term
Losing Sense of Self
Definition
—Anonymity- dimmed lighting, sunglasses increases perceived anonymity and willingness to cheat or behave selfishly.
—Studies indicates that anonymity contributes to incivility

 

—Depersonalize self- uniforms, face paint, masks
Term
Losing Sense of Self Cont.
Definition
—Reicher et al, 1998- being anonymous makes one less self conscious, more group conscious, and more responsive to cues present in the situation

 

—Self awareness- a self conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself. It makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes and dispositions- more consistency between words and action
Term
Do Groups Intensify Emotions
Definition
—Group polarization- group produced enhancement of members’ pre-existing tendencies; a strengthening of the members average tendency, not a split within the group
—Risky shift phenomenon- group decisions are usually riskier- juries, business committees, military organizations

 

—Discussion typically strengthens the average inclination of group members
Term
Group Polarization
Definition
—People associate with others whose attitudes are similar to their own
—A gang/pack is more dangerous than individual parts
—Internet chat rooms- religion, politics, music, other hobbies

 

—Terrorist organizations- isolate from belief systems, dehumanize targets, no dissent- usually bred by a long process
Term
Explaining Polarization
Definition
—Active participation in a group produces more attitude change. Verbal commitment enhances impact. More they repeat ideas, more they rehearse and validate them
—Social comparison- evaluating one’s opinions and abilities by comparing oneself to others

 

—Pluralistic ignorance- false impression of what most other people are thinking and feeling, or how they are responding
Term
Explaining Polarization Cont.
Definition
—To overcome pluralistic ignorance, one must encourage others to reveal and reinforce their shared reactions
—Can cause “bandwagon effect” movies, books, fashion etc.

 

—Factual and value laden situations, persuasive and social comparison respectively
Term
Groups hinder or assist Decision making
Definition
—Groupthink- “mode of thinking that persons engage in when concurrence-seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive in-group that it tends to override realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action.” Irving Janis (1971)

 

—What contributes: cohesive group, isolation of group from dissenting viewpoints, directive leader
Term
Groupthink
Definition
—Symptoms of Groupthink:
—Overestimate might and right-an illusion of invulnerability, unquestioned beliefs in the group’s morality
—Close minded- rationalization, stereotyped view of opponent

 

—Uniformity- conformity pressure, self-censorship, illusion of unanimity
Term
Critiquing Groupthink
Definition
—Direct leadership= poor decisions re: people feel too weak or insecure to speak up
—Smarter decisions, socially attuned members who take turns speaking
—Groups prefer supporting over challenging info

 

—When members look to others for acceptance, approval, they may suppress disagreeable thoughts
Term
Critiquing Groupthink Cont.
Definition
—Groups with diverse perspectives outperform groups of like-minded people, more creativity
—

 

—“Truth springs from argument amongst friends.”                -David Hume
Term
Preventing Groupthink
Definition
—Be impartial-
—Encourage critical evaluation
—Occasionally subdivide the group, then reunite
—Before implementing, utilize a “second chance” meeting to voice lingering doubts
—People feel more productive in a group, generate more good ideas individually

 

 

Term
Minority Influence
Definition
—Consistency- stick to position
—Self Confidence- consistency and persistence convey self confidence
—Deflections from the Majority- when minority consistently doubts the majority wisdom, majority members are freer to express doubts and may switch position

 

—Leadership- process by which group members motivate and guide the group
Term
Leadership
Definition
—Task leadership- leadership that organizes work, sets standards and focuses on goals
—Social leadership- leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict and offers support
—“We” rather than “I”- good leader enhance a groups identity

 

—Transformational leadership- leadership that, enabled by a leader’s vision and inspiration, exerts significant influence
Term
Human Nature and Cultural Diversity
Definition
—Task leadership- leadership that organizes work, sets standards and focuses on goals
—Social leadership- leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict and offers support
—“We” rather than “I”- good leader enhance a groups identity

 

—Transformational leadership- leadership that, enabled by a leader’s vision and inspiration, exerts significant influence
Term
Human Nature Cont.
Definition
Physical and psychological legacy, survive and reproduce
Negative emotions (sadness, anger, depression) have an adaptive role- ways of motivating us to cope with survival challenges

 

Social questions, whom to trust? Whom to help? Whom to mate?
Term
Culture and Behavior
Definition
Culture- the enduring behavior, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

 

Diversity in languages, customs, behaviors confirms that we are socially programmed
Term
Culture and Behavior Cont.
Definition
Norms- standards for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior
Examples: expressiveness, punctuality, personal space

 

Cultural similarity- “theory of mind” is universal, friendship norms, universal trait conditions (O.C.E.A.N.S.), universal status norms, incest taboo, norms of war- is all fair?
Term
Males and Females
Definition
Gender- the characteristics, whether biologically or socially influenced, by which people define male and female
Must be assigned a gender???
Friendships- female ,more relational, welcome more help and more attuned to others relationships

 

Male- focus on tasks/ activities, connections with groups
Term
Males and Females Cont.
Definition
Vocations- males value earning, promotion, challenge, power
Females value good hours, personal relationships, opportunities to help others

 

Females- smile more often and described as having more empathy- the vicarious experience of another’s feelings; putting oneself in another’s shoes
Term
Males and Females Cont.
Definition
Females- more skilled at expressing emotions non-verbally
Males- strong tendency toward power and achievement, greater concern for social dominance (Mr. and Mrs., “his and hers”)

 

Across cultures, people perceive leaders as having more culturally masculine traits- more confident, forceful, independent, outspoken
Term
Males and Females Cont.
Definition
Aggression- physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone, males vs. females

 

Sexuality- men, more fantasies, more permissive attitudes, seek more partners, etc.courtship- males offer money, gifts, commitment in implicit exchange for sex
Term
Evolution and Gender
Definition
Females invest their reproductive opportunities carefully, look for signs of resource and commitment
Nature selects traits that help send one’s genes into the future- yearnings are genes’ way of making more genes, emotions are involved

 

Men- strive to offer what women desire- external resources and physical protection
Term
Evolution and Gender Cont.
Definition
“Male achievement is ultimately a courtship display” Wilson (1994)
Across cultures, both women men desire kindness, love and mutual attraction

 

Jealousy- men, sexually jealousy, women, emotional jealousy
Term
Culture and Gender Cont.
Definition
Gender role- set of expectations for males and females
Gender roles vary with culture
Gender roles very over time- women- 47% of med students, lawyers, 50%

 

Peer transmitted culture
Term
Gender, Culture, Gender
Definition
Interaction- a relationship in which the effect of one factor (such as biology) depends on another factor (such as environment)

 

Research- experience uses genes to change brain (Quartz & Sejnowski, 2002), environmental stimuli can activate genes that produce new cell branching receptors
Term
Genes, Culture, Gender Cont.
Definition
Epigenetics- explores molecular mechanisms by which environments trigger genetic expression
Cultural norms- men taller than women= bio and culture

 

Across the world, women score higher on extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness
Term
Genes, Culture, Gender Cont.
Definition
“The opposite of a trivial truth is plainly false. The opposite of a great truth is also true.”         -physicist Niels Bohr

 

The power of the situation “social influence” vs. the power of the person- competition between each???
Term
Genes, Culture and Gender Cont.
Definition
Interaction occurs in at least three ways:

-a given social situation often affects different people differently

-people often chose their situations

 

-people often create their situations, something we make for ourselves

Term
Aggression
Definition
¨Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone
¨Hostile terrorism- aggression that springs from anger; goal is to injure

 

¨Instrumental aggression- aggression that aims to injure but only as a means to some end (most acts of terrorism, 9/11 example)
Term
Theories of Aggression
Definition
¨Instinctive behavior- an innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species
¨Neural influence- no area of the brain controls it. Prefrontal cortex- acts like an emergency brake for aggression, smaller in those who are murderers or antisocial

 

¨Genetic influences- temperament (how intense and reactive we are) observed in infancy usually endures
Term
Theories of Aggression Cont.
Definition
¨Biochemical influences- Alcohol- 65% of homicides, 4/10 prisoners convicted of violent crimes were drinking

-Testosterone- hormonal levels, after 25 yr., male testosterone levels and rates of violent crime decrease altogether, wider faced men display more aggression

 

-Poor diet- studies with prison population

Term
Aggression as Response to Frustration
Definition
¨Frustration-aggression theory- theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress
¨Frustration- the blocking of goal directed behavior, the gap between expectations and attainment- examples in the U.S.?
¨Displacement- ???

 

¨Relative deprivation- perception one is less well off than others with who one compares oneself
Term
Aggression as Learned Behavior
Definition
¨Rewards of aggression- child intimidates others, aggression increases, paying ransom to pirates off Somalian coast (150 million in 2008),
¨Terrorism- “kill one, frighten ten thousand”

 

¨Social learning theory- theory that we learn social behavior by observing intimidating and being rewarded and punished
Term
Aggression Learned Cont.
Definition
¨Family- aggressive kids have parents who had physically punitive parents, disciplined by modeling aggression with screaming, slapping, beating

 

¨The Culture- teenage gangs, “macho” images admired, economic inequality
Term
Some influences of Aggression
Definition
¨Aversive Incidents- pain, heat, attacks
¨Arousal- arousal fuels emotions, love never so passionate as after a fight or fright- date to a horror movie

 

- Sensation seekers- crave being in a heightened state of arousal, need “rush” of stimulation, more likely to be aggressive

Term
Influences Cont.
Definition
¨Aggression cues- sight of a gun/weapon
¨Guns- may permit but also stimulate violence, US- 10,000 deaths/yr., Australia- a dozen, Britain- two dozen, Canada- 100,

 

-guns in home- 2.7 times more likely to be murdered by family member or close acquaintance 

Term
Influences Cont.
Definition
¨Media Influences- Pornography and Sexual Violence- one of the biggest businesses in the US (13 billion/ yr.)
¨Distorted Perceptions of Sexual Reality
¨Aggression against women
¨Among 155 men arrested for Internet-based child pornography, 85% admitted they had molested a child at least once, avg. 13 victims

 

¨Porn causes violence, violent men like porn
Term
Influences Cont.
Definition
¨“The most damaging kinds of pornography (involve) sexual violence. Like an addiction, you keep craving something that is harder, harder, something which, which gives you a greater sense of excitement. Until you reach a point where the pornography only goes so far, you reach that jumping off point where you begin to wonder if maybe actually doing it would give you that which is beyond reading or looking at it.”

 

       -Ted Bundy         (on the eve of execution)

Term
Influences Cont.
Definition
¨Television and the Internet- average US household has more TVs (2.73) than people (2.6)   *more TV than ever before
¨By end of elementary school, avg. child witnesses 8,000 TV murders and 100,000 other violent acts

 

¨Correlations with 8 yr. olds violence viewing and later adult spouse abuse, adolescents with later likelihood of assault, robbery, threat of injury 
Term
Influences Cont.
Definition
¨How does TV/ internet affect behavior?- produces arousal, viewing violence disinhibits, media portrayals evoke imitation
¨Desensitization – extinguish emotional responses?
¨Altered social scripts (culturally provided mental instructions for how to act in various situations)

 

¨Altered Perceptions and Cognitive Priming 
Term
Influences Cont. 
Definition
¨Video games- 97% of 12-18 yrs. olds play video games
¨Effects- identify with the violent character, actively rehearse violence rather than passively watching it, sequence of enacting violence, repeated violence, rewards for violent acts

 

¨Increases in aggressive behavior, thoughts, feelings
Term
How can Aggression be Reduced?
Definition
¨Catharsis- emotional release. The catharsis view of aggression is that the aggressive drive is reduced when one “releases” aggressive energy, either by acting aggressively or by fantasizing aggression

 

¨We become angry by practicing and reinforcing
Term
Aggression Reduced Cont.
Definition
¨Social Learning Approach- reward cooperative, pro-social, nonaggressive behavior
¨Preventative measures in place- problem solving skills, emotion-control strategies, conflict resolution techniques

 

¨Parent training- frame statements positively
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