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Exam 3
Chapters 8-10
224
Psychology
Undergraduate 2
10/31/2011

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term

Development

 

3 Processes

Definition

a pattern of continuity and change in human capailities that occurs through course of life

 

Physical Processes

Cognative Prcesses

Socioemotional Processes

Term
Nature
Definition
Biological inheritance, especially genes
Term
Nurture
Definition
Environmental and social experiences
Term
Genotype
Definition
Genetic heritage
Term
Phenotype
Definition

Observable characteristics

 

Contributions of both nature and nurture (interaction)

Term
Seekin optimal experiences in life...
Definition
Some psychologists believe we can develop beyond what our gnetic inheritance and out environment give us
Term
Prenatal Development
Definition
Conception -> Zygote -> Fetus
Term
Germinal Period (Weeks 1 and 2)
Definition

Cell divisions (100-150 cells make up a zygote)

 

Attachment to uterine wall

Term
Embryonic Period (Weeks 3 through 8)
Definition

Intensified cell differentiation

 

Development of support system

 

Appearance of organs

 

Neural tube (spinal cord) starts to take shape

Term
Fetal Period (Months 2-9)
Definition
Development includes movement, organ functioning, weight gain
Term
Threats to Fetus
Definition

Teratogen

Any agent that cause birth defect

Chemical substances; Nicotine, heroin, alcohol

Certain illnesses:Rubella, sexually transmitted diseases HIV

 

Preterm Birth (prior to 37 weeks)

Risk for developmental difficulties

Term
Reflexes
Definition

Genetically wired

 

Sucking, swallowing, coughing, blinking, yawning, grasping, startle

 

Reflexes disappear as infant matures

Term
Motor and Preceptual Skills
Definition

Motor skills as a convergence of nature and nurture

 

Motor and preceptual skills couples and interdependent

Term
Studying Infant Perception
Definition

Preferential Looking Technique

 

Habituation

Term
Brain Developmet- Infancy
Definition

Branching of dendrites

 

Myelination

Term
Brain Development- Childhood
Definition

Dramatic increase in synaptic connections

 

'Pruning' of unused neural connections

 

Rapid growth in frontal lobe areas

Term
Cognitive Development
Definition
change in though, intelligence, language process
Term
Jean Piaget
Definition
Children actively construct their cognitive world
Term
Schema
Definition
Mental concept framework to organize/interpret information
Term
Assimilation
Definition
Incorporating new information into existing knowledge
Term
Accommodation
Definition
Adjusting schemas to new information
Term
Piaget's 4 Stages
Definition

Sensorimotor Stage

 

Preoperational Stage

 

Concrete Operational Stage

 

Formal Operational Stage

 

 

 

 

Term
Sensorimeter Stage (birth to age 2)
Definition

Coordinating sensory experiences with motor actions

 

Development ofobject permanence, as objects are no longer "out of sight, out of mind"

Term
Preoperational Stage (ages 2 to 7)
Definition

Beginning of symbolic thinking

 

Inability to perform operations, or reversible mental representations

 

Egocentric (can't see another's perspective) and intuitive thinking

Term
Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7-11)
Definition

Successful conservation task, ability to "reverse"

 

Ability to classify things into different sets

Term
Formal Operational Stage (ages 11 to 15)
Definition

Thinking about things that are not concrete

 

Making predictions

 

Using logic to come up with hypotheses about future

 

Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning

-Developing hypotheses about ways to solve a problem

Term
Evaluating Piaget's Theory
Definition

Underestimation of infants

 

Overestimation of adolescent and adults

 

Lack of belief in roles of culture and education in cognitive development

Term

L. Vygotsky (Russian psychologist)

 

Definition

Emphasis on interpersonal process in culture context

 

Interactions with others providing scaffolding

Term
Socioemotional Development
Definition

Temperament

Attachment in Infancy

Erikson's Theory

Parenting and Developmental Outcomes

Divorce and Developmental Outcomes

Moral Development

Gender Development

Term
Temperament
Definition

Behavioral style, characteristic way of responding

 

Chess & Thomas

 

Also, self regulation, inhibition, negative affectivity may be dimensions along which infants differ

Term
Chess & Thomas
Definition

Easy Child

-positive mood, regualr routiens, easily adapts

 

Difficult Child

-reacts negatively, irregular routine, slow to adapt

 

Slow-to-Warm-Up Child

-low activity/intensity, somewhat negative, inflexible

Term
Attachment
Definition

Attachment is the close emotional bond between infant and caregiver

 

H. Harlow's Monkeys & Contact Comfort

 

Ainsworth's Strange Situation and Secure Attachment

Term

 

H. Harlow's Monkeys & Contact Comfort

 

 

Definition
Warm contact as crucial to attachment
Term

 

 

Ainsworth's Strange Situation and Secure Attachment

Definition

Caregiver as base from which to explore

 

May not adequately account for cultural variations

Term
Erik Erikson's Theory
Definition

Theory of life-span developmet

-Four stages in childhood

-Four stages in adolescence and adulthood

 

Stages represent developmental tasks to master

 

Two possible outcomes for each task

-Greater personal competence or

-Greater weakness and vulnerability

Term
Erikson's Childhood Stages
Definition

Trust vs. Mistrust (first 18 months)

-Getting needs met

 

Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (1 1/2 to 3 years)

-Developing sense of independence

 

Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 5 years)

-Assuming more responsibility for self

 

Industry vs. Inferiority (6 years to puberty)

-Mastering knowledge and intellectual skills

 

Term

Parenting and Development

Diana Baumrind

 

Definition

Four Basic styles of parent-child interaction

 

1.Authoritarian Parenting

-Restrictive, punitive style

 

2. Authoritative Parenting

-Encouragement of independence, within limits

 

3. Neglectful Parenting

-Lack of parental involvement

 

4. Permissive Parenting

-few limits on child's behavior

Term
Divorce & Development
Definition

Mavis Heatherington's research shows:

 

-Children vulnerable to stress during divorce

 

-Adjustment difficulties in 25% of children and adolescents in divorced families (10% in non divorced families)

 

-Better adjustment predicted by certain factors

Term
Better adjustment predicted by certain factors
Definition

Harmony between divorced parents

 

Authoritative parenting

 

Good schools

 

Easy (rather than difficult) child temperament

Term
Moral Development
Definition

Kohlberg

 

changes in principles and values guiding behavior

Term
Moral reasoning does not equal
Definition
moral behavior
Term
Justice Perspective
Definition

Kohlberg

 

Focuses on rights of individual

 

Independent moral decisions

Term
Care Perspective
Definition

Carol Gilligan

 

Views people in terms of connectedness to others

 

Interpersonal communication

 

 

Term
Social Experience (Gender)
Definition

Gender Roles (expectations of behavior)

 

Gender Schema (cognitive framework for interpreting experiences related to gender)

 

Peers influence gender development

Term

Resilience in Childhood

 

3 Factors

Definition

Ability to recover from, or adapt to, difficulty

 

Resilient children -> Capable adults

 

Individual Factors

-Good intellectual functioning

 

Extrafamilial Factors

-Bonds to supportive, competent adults

Term
Adolescence
Definition

Developmental period of transition from childhood to adulthood

 

- From 10-12 years of age, to 18-21 years old

 

-Ethnic, cultural, historical, gender, socioeconomic, and lifestyle variations in life trajectories

Term
Pubertal Change
Definition

Period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation

 

Hormonal changes

-Testosterone in boys

-Estradiol in girls

Term
Brain Development
Definition

Earlier development of amygdala (emotion)

 

Later development of prefrontal cortex (reasoning)

Term
Cognitive Development
Definition

Advance in Piaget's formal operational state

 

Adolescent egocentrism

Term
Adolescent egocentrism
Definition

Belief that others are also preoccupied with adolescent

 

Belief that one is unique

 

Belief that one is invincible

Term

E. Erikson's Theory and Identity Development

 

Socioemotional

Definition
Identity vs. Identity Confusion (5th stage)
Term

James Marcia's Theory of Identity Status (2 dimensions are important)

 

Socioemotional

Definition

Exploration of options for career and personal values

 

Commitment to, and investment in, and identity path

Term

Ethnic Identity

 

Socioemotional

Definition

Biculturalism

 

Strong ethnic identity is beneficial

Term

Adolescent Development

 

Parents

Definition

As effective managers

 

As effective monitors and supervision

Term

Adolescent Development

 

Peers

Definition
Having close friends, but avoiding delinquent peers
Term

Adolescent Development

 

Adolescence

Definition

Time of evaluation, decision making, and commitment

 

Searching for an identity

 

Access to legitimate opportunities for growth

Term
Emerging Adulthood
Definition

Transitional period from adolescence to adulthood

 

-From 18 to 25 years of age

 

-Characterized by experimentation and exploration

Term
Emerging Adulthood Key Features
Definition

Identity expliration

Instability

Self-focus

Feeling "in between"

Age of possibilities

Term

Physical Development

 

Early Adulthood (20's & 30's)

Definition

Decline of physical skills, hearing, vision

 

Term

Physical Development

 

Middle Adulthood (40's & 50's)

Definition

Changes in appearance, vision

 

Menopause, and hot flashes, in women

Term

Physical Development

 

Late Adulthood (65+)

Definition
Increase in life expectancy over time
Term
Cellular Clock Theory
Definition
Cells less capable of dividing with age Shortened telomeres (tips of chromosomes); cells may only be able to divide 100 times
Term
Free-Radical Theory
Definition
Damage done by unstable oxygen molecules in cells
Term
Hormonal Stress Theory
Definition
Hormones stay in blood longer; lowering resistance to stress, increasing risk of disease
Term
Ageing and the Brain
Definition

New brain cells possible throughout life (new concept); re-growth limited to:

-Hippocampus

-Olfactory bulb

 

Repair capability (rewiring) to conmpensate for losses

 

Changes (decreases) in lateralization as adaptation

 

Aging brain's ability to grow and change

Term

Early Adulthood

 

Cognitive Development

Definition
More realistic, pragmatic thinking
Term

Middle Adulthood

 

Cognitive Development

Definition

Crystallized intelligence higher, fluid intelligence lower

 

May be a peak for many intellectual skills

 

Term

Late Adulthood

 

Cognitive Development

 

Definition
Processing speed and memory poorer, but wisdom greater
Term
Socioemotional Development
Definition

Erikcon's Adult Stages

 

Marriage

 

Parenting

 

Midlife Crises

 

Socioemotional Aspects of Aging

Term
Erikson's Adult Stages
Definition

Initimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood)

-Forming healthy and intimate relationships

 

Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood)

-Helping younger generation develop useful lives

 

Ego Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood)

-Looking back and evaluating one's life

Term
Principles of Successful Marriage
Definition

J Gottman

 

Nurturing fondness and admiration

Turning toward each other as friends

Giving up some power

Solving conflicts together

Term
Midlife Crises
Definition

Daniel Levinson

 

Heightened awarness of finite nature of life

 

Importance of contributing legacy to future

Term
Socioemotional Aspects of Aging
Definition

Active and involved -> Satisfied and healthy

 

Selective about social networks

 

Better control of emotions

Term
Adult growth as a conscious process
Definition
Coping with life's difficulties (e.g., death)
Term
Life theme
Definition
Efforts to cultivate meanigful optiaml experiences
Term

Motivation

 

3 Approaches/Theories

Definition

Motivation as force that moves people to behave, think, and feel as they do

 

Evolutionary Approach

Drive Reduction Theory

Optimal Arousal Theory

Term

Ethology

 

Evolutionary Approach

Definition
study of animal behavior
Term

Instinct

 

Evolutionary Approach

Definition

Innate (unlearned) biological pattern of behavior assumed to be universal throughout species

 

Set in motion by a sign stimulus (something in the environment that turns on a fixed pattern)

Term
Evolutionary Approach
Definition
Motivations for sex, aggression, achievement may be rooted in evolutionary past
Term
Drive Reduction Theory
Definition
Motivation is to reduce drives
Term

Drive

 

Drive Reduction Theory

Definition
Aroused state that occurs due to physiological need
Term

Need

 

Drive Reduction Theory

Definition
Deprivation that energizes drive to reduce or emilinate that deprivation
Term

Homeostasis

 

Drive Reduction Theory

Definition
Body's tendency to maintain equilibrium
Term

Yerkes-Dodson Law

 

Optimum Arousal Theory

Definition
Performance best under conditions of moderate arousal, rather than low or high arousal (inverted U function)
Term

Low arousal

 

Optimum Arousal Theory

Definition

Too lethargic to perform tasks well

 

Term

High arousal

 

Optimum Arousal Theory

Definition
May not be able to concentrate
Term
Gastric Signals
Definition

Stomach contractions

 

Cholecysokinin (CCK)- hormone which hekps start digestion of food and signals us to stop eating

Term
Blood Chemistry
Definition

Glucose- blood sugar (energy source)

 

Insulin- plays role in glucose control

 

Leptin- released by fat cells, decrease food intake

Term
Brain Processes (Food)
Definition

Lateral Hypothalamus- involved in stimulating eating

 

Ventromedial Hypothalamus- reducing hunger

Term
Biology of Obesity
Definition

Genetic component

 

Set Point

-Weight maintained when no effort made to gain or lose weight

Term
Psychological Factors in Hunger and Obesity
Definition

Emotional state and external stimuli

 

Time and place associations

 

Taste prefrences based on past scarcity of reliable food sources

Term
Brain Areas Associated with Sex
Definition

Hypothalamus- Motivation for sex

 

Cerebral Cortex (frontal lobes) moderate sexual arousal

 

Limbic System

 

Activated by neurotransmitters (dopamine) and sex hormones (e.g. testosterone)

Term
Sex hormones
Definition

Estogen (females)

 

Androgens (males)

Term
Human Sexual Repsonse Pattern
Definition
Masters and Johnson
Term

Excitement Phase

 

Human Sexual Repsonse Pattern

Definition
Begins process of erotic responsiveness
Term

Plateau Phase

 

Human Sexual Repsonse Pattern

Definition
Continuation and heightening of arousal
Term

Orgasm

 

Human Sexual Repsonse Pattern

Definition
Explosive discharge of neuromuscular tension
Term

Resolution Phase

 

Human Sexual Repsonse Pattern

Definition

Return of blood vessels to normal state

 

Refractory period in males

Term
Cognitive Factors with Sex
Definition

Cognitive capacity to think about sex and about others

 

Sexual Scripts

-Sterotyped patterns of expectancies for how people should behave sexually

Term
Sensory/Perceptual Factors
Definition

Touch (women)

 

Vision (men)

Term
Cultural Factors
Definition
Sex as normal/desirable, or as abnormal/unappealing
Term
A. Kinsey Research
Definition
Lots of wild sex, but in non-representative sample
Term
R. Michael's 'Sex in America' Survey
Definition
Sexual lives more ordinary than previously believed
Term
Differences between males and females (Sexually)
Definition
Thoughts, feelings, attitudes, behavior
Term
Sex Education Programs
Definition
Generally more effective than abstinence-only programs
Term
Sexual Orientation
Definition

Sexaul orientation refers to the direction of erotic interests

 

Created by a combination of genetic, hormonal, cognitive, anad environmental factors

 

Attitudes in society generally more positive towards homoseuality

Term
Motivation in Everyday Life
Definition

Maslow's Hierarchy of Human Needs

 

Self-Determination Theory

 

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

 

Self-Regulation

Term
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Definition
Ordering of needs may be debatable
Term

Sequence of needs to satisfy

 

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Definition

Strongest needs at base, weakest at top

 

Lower needs reflect deficiencies

 

Term

Self-actualization

 

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Definition

Motivation to develop full potential as human being

 

Highest and most elusive need

Term
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Definition

Top -> Bottom

 

Self-actialization

Esteem

Love and beloningness

Safety

Physiological

Term
Self-Determinastion Theory
Definition

Three basic, innate organismic needs

 

1. Competence

-Abel to bring about desired outcomes

-Self-efficacy and mastery

 

2. Relatedness

 -Need to engage in warm relation with others

 

3. Autonomy

-Sense of control of own life

 

Individualistuc vs. Collectistic Cultures

Term
Intrinsic Motivation
Definition

Based on internal factors

 

May have more positive outcomes

Term
Extrinsic Motivation
Definition

Includes external incentives

 

May diminish intrinsic motivation

 

*successful individuals may be both

Term
Self Regulation
Definition

Process of effortfully controlling behavior in order to pursue important objectives (goals)

 

Getting feedback as a key aspect

-Daily mood as a wat of recieving feedback

Term
Putting Goals into Action
Definition

Concrete and specific goals

 

Long-term vs. Short-term goals

 

Planning for implementation

 

Monitoring progress

Term
Emotion
Definition

Feeling, or affect, that can involve

-Physiological arousal

-Conscious experience

-Behavioral expression

 

Biological Factors

Cognitive Factors

Behavioral Factors

Sociocultural Factors

Term

Arousal

 

Autonomic Nervous System

Definition

Messages to/from body's internal organs

 

Sympathetic Nervous System

-Involved in body's arousal

 

Parasympathetic Nervous System

-Calms body

Term
Measuring Arousal
Definition

Skin Conductance Level (SCL)

 

Polygraph, or Lie Detector

Term
James-Lange Theory
Definition

Stimulus -> Physiological Reacton -> Reaction

 

Each emotion has distinct set of physiological changes

Term
Cannon-Bard Theory
Definition

Stimulus -> Physiological Reaction & Emotion

 

Different emotions could not be associated with specific physiological changes

Term
Limbic System: Amygdala
Definition

Plays central role in fear

 

Recieves neurons from senses, sends messages to organs

 

Linked with emotional memories

 

Also participates in positive emotions

Term
Neural Circuits & Neurotransmitters
Definition
Cerebral hemispheres work differently in positive and negative emotions (more left than right prefrontal activation and more endorphins and dopamine when happy)
Term
Neurotransmitters in neural pathways of emotion
Definition
Endorphins, dopamine, norepinephrine
Term
Two Factor Theory of Emotion
Definition

Schachter & Singer

 

Emotion = Physiological Arousal + Cognitive Labeling

Term
Capilano River Bridge (near Vancouver Study)
Definition

Dutton & Aron

 

Misinterpreted arousal (sexual or fear?) intensifies emotional experiences

Term
Lazarus
Definition

Cognitive activity (appraisals of self and social circumstances) as precondition for emotion

 

 

Term
Zajonc
Definition

Thoughts as a result of emotion

 

"Preferences (feelings) need no inferences"

Term
Lazarus and Zajonc both likely correct
Definition

Lazarus, about clusters of related events over time

 

Zajonc, about single events or simple preferences

Term
Behavioral Factors
Definition

Verbal or nonverbal

 

Facial expressions as reflecting emotion

Term
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Definition

Facial expressions as influencing emotion

 

Singnals to brain from facial muscles to help recognize emotion being experienced

Term
Culture Facial Factors
Definition

Facial expressions of basic emotions are universal (Paul Ekman)

 

Display Rules

-Sociocultural standards determining when, where, how emotions should be expressed

Term
Gender Influences Facial Expressions
Definition

Men and woman more alike in ways of experiencing emotion than stereotypes suggest

 

May be a difference in emotional intelligence (woman better)

Term
6 Basic Emotions
Definition

Anger

Fear

Happiness

Sadness

Disgust

Suprise

Term
Valence
Definition

Whether emotion feels pleasant or unpleasant

 

Negative Affect

-Negative emotions, such as anger, guilt, sadness

 

Positive Affect

-Positive emotions, such as joy, happiness, interest

Term
Arousal Level
Definition
Degree to which emotion is reflected in being active, engaged, or excited
Term
Adaptive Functions of Emotions
Definition
Negative emotions carry direct and immediate adaptive benefits for survival
Term
Broaden-and-Build Model
Definition
Function of positive emtions in effects on attention and ability to build resources
Term
Reilience
Definition

Associated with capacity to thrive during difficult times


Ability to bounce back from negative experiences

Term

Biological Factors

 

The Pursuit of Happiness

Definition

Heritability estimates range from 50% to 80%

 

May be a happiness set point (similar to weight)

Term

Obstacles

 

The Pursuit of Happiness

Definition

Hedonic Treadmill (Pos. feelings last short time)

-Adapting to changes that influence happiness

 

Pursuing happiness as a goal (elusive)

Term

Happiness Activities & Goal Striving

 

The Pursuit of Happiness

Definition

Activities associated with enhanced positive emotion

 

Commitment to pursuit of personally meaningful goals

Term
Personality
Definition

Personality is the pattern of enduring, distinctive...

-thoughts

-emotions

-behaviors

 

...that characterize how an individual adapts to the world

Term
Synonym for Personality
Definition
Identity
Term
Psychodynamic Perspectives
Definition
Emphasizes that personality is primarily unconscious, or beyond awarness
Term
Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory
Definition

Sexual Drive

-Most important human motivator

-Main determinant of personality

 

Hysteria

-Physical symptoms that have no physical cause

-Hysterical symptoms as overdetermined, or having multitude of causes in unconscious

Term
Id
Definition

Consists of unconscious drives

 

Resevoir of sexual energy

 

Works according to pleasure

Term
Ego
Definition

Deals with demands of reality

 

Abides by reality principle

Term
Superego
Definition

Evaluates morality of behavior

 

Reflected in "conscience"

Term
Defense Mechanisms
Definition
Defense MEchanisms are tactics ego uses to reduce anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
Term
Psychosexual Stages
Definition

Universal stages of personality development

 

Erogenous Zones

-Parts of the body that have especially strong pleasure-giving qualities at particular developmental stages

 

Adult personality as determined by way conflicts resolved between early sources of pleasure and demands reality

Term
Oral Stage (first 18 months)
Definition

Pleasure centers around mouth

 

Chewing, sucking, biting reduce tension

Term
Anal Stage (18 to 36 months)
Definition

Pleasure centers around anus and urethra and their functions

 

Toilet training

Term
Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
Definition

Pleasure focuses on genitals

-Discovery that self-stimulation is enjoyable

Term
Oedipus Complex
Definition

Boy's intense desire to replace father and enjoy affections of mother

 

Castration Anxiety

-Boy's intense fear of being mutilated by father

 

Identifying with father and adopting male gender role to reduce conflict, as foundation for superego

-Without experience of castration anxiety, girls cannot develop superego like boys

Term
Latency Period (6 years to puberty)
Definition

Setting aside all interest in sexuality

 

No real development, according to Freud

Term

Genital Stage (puberty to adulthood)

 

Definition

Sexual reawakening

 

Source of sexual pleasure outside family

Term
Fixation
Definition
Particular psychosexual stage colors adult personality
Term
Critics and Revisionists
Definition

Sexuality not pervasive force behind personality

-Oedipal complex not universal

 

First five years not as powerful in shaping adult personality

 

Ego and conscious thought more dominant

-Ego with separate line of development from id

 

Sociocultural factors more important

Term
Karen Horney's Sociocultural Approach
Definition

Freud's hypothesis lacking support of observable data

 

Sociocultural influnces on personality development

 

Both sexes envy attributes of other

-Women -> status bestowed upon men

-Men -> Reproductive capabilities of women

 

Need fpr security, not sex, as prime motive

Term
Carl Jung's Analytical Theory
Definition

Collective Unconscious

 

Archetypes

Term
Collective Unconscious
Definition

Impersonal, deepest layer of unconsious mind

 

Shared by all human beings because of ancestral past

Term
Archetypes
Definition

Emotionally-laden ideas and images that have rich and symbolic meaning for all people

 

Anima (female) & Animus (male)

 

Mandala (design or image that represents "unconscious self")

 

Persona (Public facade)

Term
Alfred Adler's Individual Psychology
Definition

People are motivated by purposes, goals

 

Perfection, not pleasure, as key motivator

 

Compensation

-Attempt to overcome inferiorities by developing abilities

 

Style of Life

-Each person's unique striving for superiority

 

Birth Order

-Could influence success of striving for superiority

Term
Psychodynamic Perspectives
Definition

Personality determined by current and early life experiences

 

Personality as developmental (stages)

 

Mental transformation of experiences for meaning

 

Mind as not all conscious

 

Inner world conflicting with outer demands of reality, creating anxiety

 

Personality and adjustment as psychology topics

Term
Psychodynamic Perspectives
Definition

Criticisms

 

Contributions

Term
Criticisms
Definition

Overly negative and pessimistic views

 

Too much faith in unconscious mind

 

Too much importance on sexulity

 

Not a theory that can be tested empirically

Term
Contributions
Definition

Childhood as crucial to later functioning

 

Development understood in terms of stages

 

Unconscious processes playing a significant role

Term
Humanistic Perspectives
Definition

Person's capacity for personal growth

 

Positive human qualities

 

Ability to...

-control our lives

-achieve what we desire

 

Maslow

Rogers

Term
Maslow's Approach
Definition

Humanistic psychology as 'third force'

 

Focus on very best examples of human beings: Self-actualizers

-Motivated to develop full potential as human beings

-At optimal level of existence

-Capacity for 'peak experiences'

 

Maslow's list of self-actualized individuals may biased, in terms of gender and culture

Term
Carl Rogers' Approach
Definition

Unconditional positive regard

-Being accepted, valued, and treated positively

 

Conditions of worth

-Societal Standards to meet kin order to recieve positive regard from others

 

Self-concept

-Representation of who we are and who we wish to be

 

Healthy human relations

-Unconditional positive regard

-Empathy

-Genuineness

Term
Humanistic Persepctives
Definition

Percieving self and world as essential elemet of personality

 

Consider whole person and positive bent of human nature

 

Emphasis on conscious experience

 

Criticisms

-Too optimitic, overestimating freedom and rationality

-Promoting excessive self-love and narcissism

-Not holding people accountable for behaviors

Term
Trait Perspectives
Definition

Broad, enduring dispositions (traits) that tend to lead to characterisic responses

 

Gordon Allport

 

Lexical (language) approach and factor analysis

Term
Gordon Allport
Definition

Focus on healthy, well adjusted individuals

 

Uniqueness of each person and capacity to adapt

 

Traits

-Mental structures that make different situations same

-State=temporary emotional condition (e.g. anxiety)

Term
Five Factor Model
Definition

Five Supertraits though to descibe main dimensions of personality (CANOE)

 

Neuroticism (Emotional Instability)

Extraversion

Openness to Experience

Agreeableness

Conscientiousness

 

Term
Evidence of five factors of personality in
Definition

Different cultures

 

animals

Term
Strong relationship between personality traits and well-being
Definition

Extraversion -> Higer levels of well being

 

Neuroticism -> Lower levels of well being

Term
Subective well-being
Definition
Person's assessment of own level of positive affect
Term
Traits
Definition
as enduring charachteristics
Term
States
Definition
as briefer experiences, such as mood
Term
Enhancing positive mood
Definition

Spending more time with loved others

 

Savoring

-Attending to positive experiences and appreciating them

Term
Trait Perspectives
Definition

Practical value of personality traits

 

Connections between personality traits and...

-health

-ways of thinking

-career success

-realtions with others

 

Criticisms

-Missing importance of situational factors

-Painting personality with very broad strokes

Term
Personological Approach
Definition

Henry Murray

 

Personology

-Study of whol person

-"The history of the organism is the organism"

 

Analysis of Hitler as first "offender profile"

 

Thematic Appercetion Test (TAT)

-Measure of motives, which are largely known

Term
Life Story Approach
Definition

Dan McAdams

 

Our life stories are our identities

 

Life Story Interviews

-Coded for themes relevant to life stages and transitions

 

Intimacy Motive

-Enduring concern for warm interpersonal encounters

 

Psychobiography

-Means of inquiry that applies personality theory to single person's life

Term
Life Story Approach (2)
Definition

Extraordinarily rich opportunity for researcher

 

Criticisms:

 

Difficult and time-consuming

-Collecting interviews and narratives

-Extensive coding and content analysis

 

Psychobiographical inquiries...

-More prone to biases

-May not serve scientific goal of generaliZABILITY

Term
Social Cognitive Perspectives
Definition

Emphasize

-conscious awarness

-beliefs

-expectations

-goals

 

Incorporate principles from behaviorism

 

Explore ability...

-to reason

-to think about past, present, and future

-to reflect on self

Term
Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory
Definition

Reciprocal Determinism

 

Observational Learning

 

Personal/Locus of Control (of reinforcement)

 

Self-Efficacy

Term
Reciprocal Determinism
Definition
Interaction of behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors to create personality
Term
Personal/Locus of Control (of reinforcement)
Definition

Internal Locus of Control

 

External Locus of Control

Term
Self-Efficacy
Definition
Belief that one can master situation and produce positive change
Term
Reciprocal Determinism
Definition

Behavior

 

Environment

 

Person and cognitive factors

Term
Critique of consistency in behavior
Definition

Walter Mischel

 

No evidence of cross-situational consistency

 

Situationism

-Personality and behavior often vary from one context to another

 

Controversial among personality psychologists

Term
CAPS Theory
Definition

Cognitive Affective Processing Systems

 

Thoughts and emotions about self/world affect behavior

 

Concerned with how personality works: "It depends"

Term

Social Cognitive Persepctive

 

Definition

Focuses on interactions of person with environment

 

Highlights observation of behavior

 

Emphasizes influence of cognitive processes

 

Criticisms

-Too concerned with change and situational influences rather than enduring qualities of personality

-Ignore role of biology in personality

-Tends to lead to very specific predictions, making generalizations impossible

Term
Hippocrates
Definition

Personality based on bodily fluids, or humours

 

 

Term
Freud
Definition
Connection between mind (personality) and body
Term
Allport
Definition
Traits as "neuro-psychic'" personality as "psychophysical"
Term
Murray
Definition
"No brain, no personality"
Term
Hans Eysenck's RAS Theory
Definition

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

 

Eysenck's Theory

Term
Reticualting Activating System (RAS)
Definition

Located in brain stem

 

Plays role in wakefulness or arousal

Term
Eysenck's Theory
Definition

All share optimal arousal level

 

RAS of extraverts and introverts may differ in baseline levels or arousal, with behaviors aimed at regulating arousal around these baselines

 

But introverts may just be more sensitive to stimuli

Term

Jeffrey Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity

 

 

Definition

Behavioral approach system (BAS) and behavioral inhibiton system (BIS) underlie personality

 

Difference in sensitivity to rewards and punishers

-BAS
-BIS

Term
BAS
Definition

Sensitive to rewards

 

Predispostion to postive emotion

 

Underlies extraversion

Term
BIS
Definition

Sensitive to punishers

 

Predisposition to fear

 

Underlies neuroticism

Term
Dopamine
Definition

Function in experience of reward, pleasure

 

Factor in BAS or extraversion

Term
Serotonin
Definition

Related to neuroticism

 

Less serotonin -> More negative mood

 

Inhibitionof serotonin reuptake

-Decrease negative mood

-Enhances feelings of sociability

Term
Behavior Genetics
Definition

Study of inherited underpinnings of behavioral characteristics

 

Twin Studies

 

Role of genetic factors enormously complex

 

Genes and environments intertwined

 

Traits influenced by multiple genes

Term
Twin Studies
Definition

Genetic factors explain differences in big five traits

 

Autobiographical memories influenced be genetics

Term
Tie personality to...
Definition

Animal learning models

 

Advances in brain imaging

 

Evolutionary theory

Term
Cautions
Definition

Biology can be effect, not cause, of personality

 

Issue of whether personality can change throughout life

Term
Personality Assessment
Definition

Rigorous methods for measuring mental processes

 

Assess personality for different reasons

 

Self Report Tests

Projective Tests

Other Assessment Methods

Term
Self-Report Tests
Definition
Directly ask people whether different items descibe their personality
Term
Social Desirability
Definition

Motivates individuals to respond in ways that make them look better

 

To address social desirability

-Give questionnaire designed to tap into tendency

-Design scales so it it impossible to tell what is being measured

-Use empiracally-keyed test to distinguish known groups

Term
MMPI 2
Definition

Most widely used and researched empiracally-keyed self-report personality test

 

Used to asses personality and predict outcomes

Term
NEO-PI-R
Definition

Geared toward assessing five-factor model

 

Includes items with face validity

Term
Projective Tests
Definition

Present individuals with ambiguous stimulus

 

Ask them to describe it, or tell a story about it

 

Especially designed to elicit unconscious feelings and conflicts

 

Theoretically aligned with psychodynamic persepectives on personality

Term
Rorschach Inkblot Test
Definition

Ten unkblots, when descibed, scored for indicating underlying psychological characteristics

 

Reliability and validity criticized

Term
Thematic Appreception Test (TAT)
Definition

Designed to elicit stories that reveal personality

 

Higher reliability and validity

Term
Other Assessment Methods
Definition

Measuring behavior directly

 

Cognitive assessments

 

Friend or peer ratings

 

Psychophysiological measures

 

Choice depends greatly on theoretical persepctive

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