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Exam 3 Study Prep
Chapters 7, 9, 10, 14
87
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
04/18/2010

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Term
Learning
Definition
A relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavioral potential) due to experience
Term
Behaviorism
Definition
An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior
Term
Conditioning
Definition
A basic kind of learning that involves associations between environmental stimuli and the organism's responses
Term
Unconditioned Stimulus
Definition
The classical conditioning term for a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the absence of learning
Term
Unconditioned Response
Definition
The classical conditioning term for a reflexive response elicited by a stimulus in the absence of learning
Term
Conditioned Stimulus
Definition
The classical conditioning term for an initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus
Term
Conditioned Response
Definition
The classical conditioning term for a response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus; it occurs after the conditioned stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus
Term
Extinction
Definition
The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response; occurs when CS is no longer paired with US
Term
Spontaneous Recovery
Definition
The reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction
Term
Higher-order Conditioning
Definition
A NS becomes a CS through association with an already established CS
Term
Counterconditioning
Definition
The process of pairing a CS with a stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with an unwanted conditioned response
Term
Operant Conditioning
Definition
The process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequences
Term
Operant
Definition
A response (operant conditioning)
Term
Reinforcement
Definition
strengthens response or makes it more likely to recur
Term
Punishment
Definition
weakens the response or makes it less likely to recur
Term
Primary reinforcer
Definition
US of operant conditioning
Term
Primary Punisher
Definition
US of operant conditioning
Term
Secondary Reinforcer
Definition
CS of operant conditioning
Term
Secondary Punisher
Definition
CS of operant conditioning
Term
Negative reinforcement
Definition
the removal of something unpleasant
Term
Negative punishment
Definition
The removal of something pleasant
Term
How to learn effectively
Definition
Continuous reinforcement at first, then partial schedule of reinforcement
Term
Shaping
Definition
Successive approximations of a desired response are reinforced
Term
Instinctive Drift
Definition
The tendency for an organism to revert to instinctive behavior
Term
Behavioral Modification
Definition
The application of operant conditioning techniques to teach new responses or to reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior
Term
When does punishment fail?
Definition
1) People often administer punishment inappropriately or mindlessly. 2) The recipient of punishment often responds with anxiety, fear, or rage. 3) The effectiveness of punishment is often temporary, depending heavily on the presence of the punishing person or circumstances. 4) Most misbehavior is hard to punish immediately. 5) Punishment conveys little information. 6) An action intended to punish may instead be reinforcing because it brings attention
Term
Latent Learning
Definition
not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without obvious reinforcement
Term
Social-Cognitive Theories
Definition
Theories that emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained through observation and imitation of others, positive consequences, and cognitive processes such as plans, expectations, and beliefs
Term
Prototype
Definition
an especially representative example of a concept
Term
Proposition
Definition
A unit of meaning that is made up of concepts and expresses a single idea
Term
Cognitive Schema
Definition
An integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world
Term
Deductive Reasoning
Definition
A conclusion necessarily follows from a set of observations or propositions
Term
Reflective judgement
Definition
pre-reflective, quasi-reflective, reflective stages
Term
Affect heuristic
Definition
The tendency to consult one's emotions instead of estimating probabilities objectively
Term
Availability heuristic
Definition
Tendency to judge the probability of a type of event by how easy it is to think of examples or instances
Term
Psychometrics
Definition
The measurement of mental abilities, traits, and processes
Term
How to calculate IQ
Definition
mental age/biological age *100%
Term
Stereotype threat
Definition
a burden of doubt a person feels about his or her performance, due to negative stereotypes about his or her group's abilities
Term
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Definition
Componential intelligence, experiential/creative intelligence, contextual/practical intelligence
Term
Tacit Knowledge
Definition
strategies for success that are not explicity taught but that instead must be inferred
Term
Confabulation
Definition
confusion of an event that happened to someone else with one that happened to you or a belief that you remember something when it never actually happened
Term
Source Misattribution
Definition
the inability to distinguish an actual memory of an event from information you learned about the event elsewhere
Term
Explicit Memory
Definition
conscious, intentional recollection of an event or of an item of information
Term
Implicit Memory
Definition
Unconscious retention in memory, as evidenced by the effect of a previous experience or previously encountered information on current thoughts or actions
Term
Leaky Bucket
Definition
STM (working memory) isn't perfect; can only hold so many items of information for so long
Term
Organization
Definition
LTM is organized like a network
Term
Procedural memories
Definition
memories for the performance of actions
Term
Declarative memories
Definition
memories of facts, rules, concepts, and events; consists of semantic and episodic memories
Term
Semantic Memories
Definition
memories of general knowledge, including facts, rules, concepts, and prepositions
Term
Episodic memories
Definition
memories of personally experienced events and the contexts in which they occurred
Term
What is the frontal lobe responsible for?
Definition
STM tasks
Term
What is the prefrontal cortex/parts of the temporal lobes responsible for?
Definition
Encoding words/pictures
Term
What is the hippocampus responsible for?
Definition
Formation of LT declarative memories, "binds together" diverse elements of memories
Term
What is the cerebellum responsible for?
Definition
Formation and retention of simple classically conditioned responses
Term
What is the cerebral cortex responsible for?
Definition
Storage of LTM, possibly in areas involved in the original perception of the information
Term
Decay Theory
Definition
The theory that information in memory eventually disappears if it is not accessed; applies better to STM than to LTM
Term
Proactive interference
Definition
Old information prevents memorization of new information
Term
Retroactive interference
Definition
New information prevents retention of old information
Term
Cue-dependent memory
Definition
Inability to retrieve information stored in memory because of insufficient cues for recall
Term
Causes of childhood amnesia:
Definition
1) Lack of a sense of self. 2) Impovershed encoding. 3) A focus on the routine. 4) Children's ways of thinking about the world
Term
Embryonic stage
Definition
From 2 weeks after fertilization until the 8th week after conception
Term
Motor reflexes present in babies:
Definition
Rooting, sucking, grasping, knee-jerk, eye-blink, etc.
Term
When are babies fearful of strangers?
Definition
Between 6 and 8 months
Term
Two Styles of Attachment:
Definition
Secure and Insecure
Term
Avoidant Attachment:
Definition
Infant doesn't care if the mother leaves the room, and treats her the same upon her return
Term
Anxious/ambivalent Attachment:
Definition
Resists contact with mother at reunion, cries loudly if she leaves
Term
Which years are crucial to a child's development?
Definition
1-3
Term
Language in the first few months:
Definition
Crying, cooing; respond to emotions and rhythms in voices
Term
Language in 4-6 months of age
Definition
Recognize key vowel and consonant sounds of native language
Term
Language in 6 months-1 year
Definition
Able to distinguish words, recognize the same word spoken by different people
Term
Language at the end of yr 1
Definition
Start to name things based on familiar concepts and use symbolic gestures to communicate
Term
Language in 18-24 months
Definition
Speaking in two to three-word phrases
Term
Piaget
Definition
created "flower-blooming" school of cognitive development; children's strategies to solve problems are not meaningless
Term
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Stages
Definition
Sensorimotor, preoperational stage concrete operations stage, formal operations stage
Term
Sensorimotor stage
Definition
Ages 0-2; object permanence, beginnings of representational thought
Term
Preoperational Stage
Definition
Ages 2-7; accelerated use of symbols and language
Term
Concrete Operations Stage
Definition
Ages 7-12; understanding of conservation, understanding of identity, understanding of serial ordering
Term
Formal Operations Stage
Definition
Ages 12+; abstract reasoning, ability to compare and classify ideas
Term
Private speech
Definition
Out loud at first, becomes internalized (Vygotsky)
Term
Why children obey (chronological):
Definition
Fear of punishment, it is in their best interest, conformity and loyalty to others, rule of law, universal moral standard
Term
Induction
Definition
Parents appeal to child's own abilities, sense of responsibility, and feelings for others in correcting misbehavior
Term
Gender identity
Definition
Developed as early as 4-5
Term
Gender schemas are most rigid between ages:
Definition
5 and 7
Term
Early-maturing boys
Definition
More athletic prestige, higher probability of abusing drugs/alcohol
Term
Erikson's Stages
Definition
1) Trust vs Mistrust 2) Autonomy vs shame and doubt 3) Initiative vs guilt 4) Competency vs inferiority 5) Identity vs role confusion 6) Intimacy vs isolation 7) Generativity vs Stagnation 8) Ego integrity vs despair
Term
Stages are inadequate because
Definition
Cultures have different "social clocks"
Term
Greatest psychological well-being, good health, productivity, and community involvement is in
Definition
middle years
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