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Exam 2
Psych Exam 2
154
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
10/25/2012

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Term
Sensation
Definition
The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system recieve and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
Term
Perception
Definition
THe process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recgonize meaningful objects and events. 
Term
Bottom-up processing
Definition
Analysis that beings with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.
Term
Top-down processing
Definition
Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. 
Term
Transduction
Definition
Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret.
Term
Psychophysics
Definition
The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them. 
Term
Absolute threshold
Definition
The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. 
Term
Signal detection theory
Definition
A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness. 
Term
Subliminal
Definition
Below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
Term
Priming
Definition
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response. 
Term
Difference Threshold
Definition
The minimum difference between two stimuli require for detection 50% of the time. We experience this as a just noticable difference (jnd)
Term
Weber's law
Definition
The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a given percentage (rather than a given amount)
Term
Sensory adaptation
Definition
Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. 
Term
Perceptual set
Definition
A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.
Term
Wavelength 
Definition
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission. 
Term
Hue
Definition
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth. 
Term
intensity
Definition
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude
Term
Pupil
Definition
the adjustable opening of the center of the eye through which light enters. 
Term
iris
Definition
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the puopil and controls the size of the pupil opening.
Term
lens
Definition
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.
Term
retina
Definition
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.
Term
accommodation
Definition
the process by which the eye's lens hcanges shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.
Term
rods
Definition
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and grey; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.
Term
cones
Definition
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. they detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. 
Term
Optic nerve
Definition
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
Term
blind spot
Definition
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there. 
Term
fovea
Definition
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.
Term
feature detectors
Definition
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus such as shape, angle, or movement.
Term
parallel processing
Definition
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step by step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
Term
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory
Definition
the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue - which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color. 
Term
Opponent-process theory
Definition
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stiumlated by red and inhibited by green.
Term
gestalt
Definition
an organized whole. these psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. 
Term
figure-ground
Definition
the organization of the visual field into objects athat stand out from their surroundings.
Term
grouping
Definition
the perceptual tendency to organize stiumli into coherent groups.
Term
depth perception
Definition
the ability to see objects in three dimensions altoough the images that strike the retina are 2-D; allows us to judge distance
Term
visual cliff
Definition
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.
Term
binocular cues
Definition
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes.
Term
retinal disparity
Definition
a binocular cue for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object. 
Term
monocular cues
Definition
depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, vailable to either eye alone. 
Term
phi phenomenon
Definition
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.
Term
perceptual constancy
Definition
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, brightness and color) even as illumination and retinal images change. 
Term
color constancy
Definition
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wave lengths reflected by the object. 
Term
perceptual adaptation
Definition
in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field. 
Term
learning
Definition
the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
Term
associative learning
Definition
learning that certain events occur together. the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning)
Term
stimulus
Definition
any event or situation that evokes a response
Term
covnitive learning
Definition
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language. 
Term
classical conditioning
Definition
a type of learning in which one learning to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. 
Term
behaviorism
Definition

the view that psychology:

(1) should be an objective science that (2) studeis behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). 

Term
respondent behvaior
Definition
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
Term
neutral stimulus (NS) 
Definition
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. 
Term
unconditioned response (UR)
Definition
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occuring response (such as salivation) to an undconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).
Term
unconditioned stimulus (US)
Definition
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response (UR)
Term
conditioned response (CR)
Definition
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
Term
conditioned stimulus
Definition
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).
Term
acquisition
Definition
in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the vonditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. 
Term
higher-order conditioning
Definition
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired wiht a new neutral stiumulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. 
Term
extinction
Definition
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occus in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. 
Term
spontaneous recovery
Definition
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. 
Term
generalization
Definition
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
Term
discrimination
Definition
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. 
Term
associative learning
Definition
learning that certain events occur together. the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its condquence (as in operant conditioning). 
Term
stimulus
Definition
any event or situation that evokes a response. 
Term
operant conditioning
Definition
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or dimiinished if followed by a punisher. 
Term
law of effect
Definition
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and taht behaviors followed by unfavorable conseuqences become less likely. 
Term
operant chamber
Definition
in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can minipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
Term
reinforcement
Definition
in operant conditioning, any event that strenghtens the behavior it follows. 
Term
shaping
Definition
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Term
positive reinforcement
Definition
increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. a positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
Term
negative reinforcement
Definition
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response
Term
primary reinforcer
Definition
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. 
Term
conditioned reinforcer
Definition
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.
Term
reinforcement schedule
Definition
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.
Term
continuous reinforcement
Definition
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. 
Term
partial (intermittent) reinforcement
Definition
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower aquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. 
Term
fixed-ratio schedule
Definition
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule taht reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. 
Term
variable-ratio schedule
Definition
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
Term
fixed-interval schedule
Definition
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
Term
variable-interval schedule
Definition
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredicatble time intervals. 
Term
punishment
Definition
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows. 
Term
repondent behavior
Definition
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
Term
operant behavior
Definition
beavior that operates on the enviornment, producing consequences. 
Term
cognitive learning
Definition
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.
Term
cognitive map
Definition
a mental representation of the layout of one's enviornment.For exmaple, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it. 
Term
latent learning
Definition
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Term
intrinsic motivation
Definition
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.
Term
extrinsic motivation
Definition
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment. 
Term
observational learning
Definition
learning by observing others. 
Term
modeling
Definition
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Term
mirror neurons
Definition
frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. the brain's mirror of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.
Term
prosocial behavior
Definition
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. the opposite of antisocial behavior. 
Term
memory
Definition
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
Term
recall
Definition
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. 
Term
recognition
Definition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. 
Term
relearning
Definition
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.
Term
encoding
Definition
the processing of information into the memory system-for example, by extracting meaning.
Term
storage
Definition
the retention of encoded information over time
Term
retrieval
Definition
the process of getting information out of memory storage
Term
sensory memory
Definition
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
Term
short-term memory
Definition
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.
Term
long-term memory
Definition
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. 
Term
working memory
Definition
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
Term
explicit memory
Definition
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
Term
effortful processing
Definition
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. 
Term
automatic processing
Definition
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. 
Term
implicit memory
Definition
retention independent of conscious recollection
Term
iconic memory
Definition
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
Term
echoic memory
Definition
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
Term
chunking
Definition
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
Term
mnemonics
Definition
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. 
Term
spacing effects
Definition
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retnetion than is achieved through massed study or practice. 
Term
testing effect
Definition
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information.
Term
shallow processing
Definition
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
Term
deep processing
Definition
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention. 
Term
hippocampus
Definition
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
Term
implicit memory
Definition
retention idependent of conscious recollection.
Term
long-term potentiation (LTP)
Definition
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. 
Term
priming
Definition
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.
Term
mood-congruent memory
Definition
the tendency to recall experiences that are consisten with one's current good or bad mood. 
Term
serial position effect
Definition
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. 
Term
anterograde amnesia
Definition
an inability to form new memories
Term
retrograde amnesia
Definition
an inability to retrieve information from one's past.
Term
proactive interference
Definition
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
Term
retroactive interference
Definition
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
Term
repression
Definition
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. 
Term
misinformation effect
Definition
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.
Term
source amnesia
Definition
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experiences, heard about, read about, or imagined. at the heart of many false memories.
Term
deja vu
Definition
that eerie sense that "i've experienced this before." cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. 
Term
intelligence
Definition
mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
Term
intelligence test
Definition
a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores. 
Term
general intelligence (g)
Definition
a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore meausred by every task on an intelligence test. 
Term
factor analysis
Definition
a statistical procesdure that identifies clusters of related items (factors) on a test ;used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.
Term
savent syndrome
Definition
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.
Term
creativity
Definition
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. 
Term
emotional intelligence
Definition
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions. 
Term
mental age
Definition
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; te chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year old is said to have a mental age of 8. 
Term
Standford-Binet
Definition
the widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test. 
Term
intelligence quotient (IQ)
Definition
defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) mulitplied by 100. 
Term
achievement test
Definition
a test designed to assess what a person has learned.
Term
aptitude test
Definition
a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.
Term
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
Definition
the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests.
Term
standardization
Definition
defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.
Term
normal curve
Definition
the symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.
Term
reliability
Definition
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, or on retesting.
Term
validity
Definition
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.
Term
content validity
Definition
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest. 
Term
predictive validity
Definition
the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. 
Term
chort
Definition
a group of people from a given time period
Term
crystallized intelligence
Definition
our accusmulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
Term
fluid intelligence
Definition
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.
Term
intellectual disability
Definition
a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound
Term
down syndrome
Definition
a condition of mild to sever intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. 
Term
heritability
Definition
the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. 
Term
stereotype threat
Definition
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
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