Shared Flashcard Set

Details

Exam 1 Flashcards
Vocab and questions from Dr. LeMaster's notes through the first exam
202
Biology
Undergraduate 2
04/05/2011

Additional Biology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
Gross Anatomy
Definition
Anantomy visible to the naked eye
Term
Physiology
Definition
The study of how living organisms perform vital functions
Term
Systemic Anatomy
Definition
Study of anantomy of organ systems
Term
Regonal Anatomy
Definition
The study of structures in a particular region, such as a limb
Term
Anatomy
Definition
The study of internal/external structures and the physical relationships between body parts
Term
Interneurons
Definition
Neurons that control the set point in a feedback system
Term
Histology
Definition
The study of tissues
Term
Neurotransmitter
Definition
Chemicals released by one neuron that affect the activity of a second neuron
Term
Retrograde
Definition
In a neuron, the action potential moving from the axon to the cell body
Term
Anterograde
Definition
In a neuron, the action potential moving from the cell body to the axon
Term
Which direction to action potentials travel in neurons?
Definition
ALWAYS Anterograde
Term
Neuron: Synaptic Terminals
Definition
Function: Transmits signals to other neurons and effector organs
Term
Neuron: Axon
Definition
Function: Conducts action potential; includes the axon hillock (the start of the axon and where action potentail initiation starts)
Term
Neuron: Cell body
Definition
The "Business district". Includes regular cell organelles (mito., ER, Golgi ect.). Function: Integrates information and initiates response.
Term
Neurons: Dendrites
Definition
Function: Receives information from the enviornment and other neurons
Term
Neurons
Definition
Specialized "exciteable" cells that maintain and conduct energy. Allow for communication via electrical impulses.
Term
Positive Feedback
Definition
Drives system away from set point. Ex: uterine contractions during childbirth, or vasopressin the the prarie vole
Term
Negative Feedback
Definition
Drives system towards set point. In other words, it counteracts the change. Ex: shivering to heat up the body when the temp. has dipped below normal (the set point)
Term
Feedback System Steps
Definition

1. Information

2. Receptor

3. Control Center

4. Effector

5.Effect

6. Change in System

Term
Homeostasis
Definition
The process of maintaining a relatively stable internal enviornment. It is not a static process (it flucutates), it requires energy, and its conditions are maintained via feedback systems.
Term
Information Processing Steps
Definition

1. Sensor

Sensory Input

2. Control center (interneurons)

3. Integration

4. Motor output

Term
Cephalization
Definition
Clustering of sensory neurons/interneurons at the anterior end (head)
Term
Why can most neurons not divide?
Definition
Because they do not have centrioles, which are required for cell division.
Term
Are action potentials electrical or chemical?
Definition
Electrical
Term
Name 4 types of nervous system organization in animals
Definition

1. Nerve net, like in the hydra

2. Nerves, like in the sea star

3. Cephalization, like in planaria

4. CNS and PNS, like in humans

Term

Connective Tissue

(function and types)

Definition

Function: Connects other tissues together.

Types: Losse connective, cartilage, fibrous connective, adipose, bone, blood

Term
CNS
Definition

Central Nervous System

Function: integration and processing

Includes: Brain and Spinal Chord

Term
Why is the spinal chord considered part of the CNS?
Definition
Because it can make desicions
Term
PNS
Definition

Peripheral Nervous System

Functions: Sensory and motor neurons

Term
At rest, the inside of a neuron is (positive/negative), compared to the outside, which is (positive/negative).
Definition
At rest, the inside of a neuron is negative, compared to the outside, which is positive.
Term
K and Na channels are ______, meaning that energy is NOT required to pass through them.
Definition
Passive
Term
Na/K pumps are _____, meaning that energy IS required for material to pass through.
Definition
Active
Term
In a neuron at rest, the concentration of Na inside is (low/high), and the concentration outside is (low/high).
Definition
In a neuron at rest, the concentration of Na inside is low, and the concentration outside is high.
Term
In a neuron at rest, the concentration of K inside is (low/high), and the concentration outside is (low/high).
Definition
In a neuron at rest, the concentration of K inside is high, and the concentration outside is low.
Term
In a neuron at rest, Na gates are (open/closed).
Definition
In a neuron at rest, Na gates are closed.
Term
In a neuron at rest, what is happening with the K channels?
Definition
Most channels are closed at rest, while a subset of "leaky" K channels are left open, allowing some K to diffuse out.
Term
How many of each ions does a sodium-potassium pump pump, and are they pumped in or out of the neuron?
Definition
A sodium-postassium pump pumps 2 K in and 3 Na out.
Term
What is the net effect of the K and Na channels and the K/ Na   pump?
Definition
More positive ions are moved out than in, causing a negative charge to develop inside the neuron.
Term
Equalibrium Potential in the Neuron
Definition
When the amount of positive ions leaving equals the amount of negative ions entering.
Term
When a stimulus opens Nachannels, what happens to the neuron?
Definition
Na⁺ rushes in, resulting in the depolarization of the cell. In other words, the cell becomes less negative.
Term
When a stimulus opens K⁺ channels, what happens to the neuron?
Definition
K⁺ rushes out, resulting in the hyperpolarization of the neuron. In other words, the cell becomes more negative.
Term
Neurons use changes in _______  ________ to communicate.
Definition
Neurons use changes in membrane potential to communicate.
Term
What are the two primary types of communication signals that neurons use?
Definition
Graded potentials and action potentials
Term
Graded Potentials
Definition
Graded potentials are for short range communication between neurons, and occurs between dentrites and the cell body. They cause a local change in membrane potential.
Term
Graded potentials are (independent/dependent) upon stimulus strength.
Definition
Graded potentials are dependent upon stimulus strength.
Term
Describe weak vs. strong graded potentials in regards to Na⁺ gates.
Definition
Weak graded potentials briefly open Na⁺ gates. Strong graded potentials are a prolonged opening of Na⁺ gates. Also, the strength of decreases with distance from the source.
Term
Graded potentials intiate __________.
Definition
Action Potentials
Term
Action Potential
Definition
A short-lived, self-propagating depolarization event
Term
Where do action potentials occur?
Definition
Only on neuron axons or muscle sarcolemma
Term
The magnitude of an action potential is (independant/dependant) on signal strength.
Definition
The magnitude of an action potential is independant on signal strength.
Term
Refractory Period
Definition
A period in time where the cell can not fire additional actio potentials. This allows the cell to recharge.
Term
Absolute Refractory Period
Definition
Na and K gates are open, so it is impossible for an action potential to fire.
Term
Relative Refractory Period
Definition
A period where the firing of an action potential is possible, but the graded potential needs to be strong.
Term
Tetrototoxin (TTX)
Definition
Found on newts. TTX is a toxin that works by sitting on top of Na channels and inhibiting action potentials.
Term
Continuous Conduction
Definition
Occurs on unmylenated axons in neurons. It is a continuous chain-rxn along an axon membrane.
Term
Saltatory Conduction
Definition
Occurs on mylenated axons. The action potential jumps from Schwann node to node, increasing the speed of impulse transmission and electrically insulating neurons from one another.
Term
Nodes of Ranvier
Definition
The spaces between Schwann cells on the axon of a neuron. Na/K pumps lie in the Nodes of Ranvier.
Term
Multiple Sclerosis
Definition
Results from demylenation.
Term
Synapse
Definition
Functional point of contact between two neurons or a neuron and an effector cell
Term
Electrical Synapse
Definition
Gap junctions connect neurons allowing for direct transfer of ions. The ability to stop the signal is slow.
Term
Chemical Synapse
Definition
Neurotransmitters mediate signal transfer. This is much slower than electrical, but it allows for regulation.
Term
Presynatptic Cell
Definition
During a synapse, the cell that brings the signal in. It has synaptic vesicles, which contain neurotransmitters.
Term
Synaptic Vesicles
Definition
Located on presynaptic cells and contain neurotransmitters.
Term
Postsynaptic Cell
Definition
Dendrites. During a synapse, the cell that receives the signal. It has receptor proteins for neurotransmitters.
Term
Synaptic Cleft
Definition
The space between a presynaptic and postsynaptic cell. It is approx. 30-50 nm across.
Term
[Ca⁺] is (high/low) on the inside of the cell, and (high/low) outside of the cell. 
Definition
[Ca⁺] is low on the inside of the cell, and high outside of the cell. 
Term
In what 3 ways are neurotransmitters removed from the synaptic cleft?
Definition

1. Enzyme Degradation

2. Presynaptic Cell Reuptake

3. Diffusion from cleft

Term
EPSP (Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential)
Definition
A summation of EPSP's trigger a postsynaptic cell and induce an action potential. One alone cannot induce an action potential.
Term
Spatial Summation
Definition
Simultaenous stimulation from separate synapses.
Term
Temporal Summation
Definition
Repeated stimulation from a singal synapse.
Term
IPSP (Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential)
Definition
Can cause a negative response, hyperpolarizing the cell OR a positive response, depolarizing the cell. Either way, the action peotnail is inhibted because it does not reach the correct threshold.
Term
What are the 5 major types of neurotransmitters?
Definition

1. Acetylcholine

2. Biogenic Amines ("feel good" effect)

3. Amino Acids

4. Neuropeptides (natural opiates)

5. Gases

Term
Sensations
Definition
Electrical impulses that reach the brain via sensory neurons.
Term
Perceptions
Definition
Interpretation of electrical impulses by the brain
Term
Amplification
Definition
Strengthening of stimulus signal
Term
Sensory Adaptation
Definition
Decrease in repsonsivness over time
Term
What are the 4 steps of a stimulus pathway?
Definition

1. Reception: Receptor detects stimuli

2. Transduction: Stimuli converted to electricl impulse

3. Transmission: Impulse conducted to CNS

4. Summation: Integration of signal by CNS

Term
The intensity of a stimulus signal depends on ____ ______ _______.
Definition
The intensity of a stimulus signal depends on action potential frequency.
Term
Mechanoreceptors
Definition
Receptors that detect physical deformation, such as touch.
Term
Muscle Spindles
Definition
A type of mechanoreceptors. They moniter muscle stretch. In other words, you know where your body is in space.
Term
Hair Cells
Definition
A type of mechanoreceptor that detects motion, such as in the ear.
Term
Nociceptors
Definition
Pain receptors that are stimulated by inflamed or damaged tissue. Releases and binds K
Term
Osmoreceptors
Definition
Receptors that detect change in solute concentration. Ex: Thirst
Term
Gustatory Receptors
Definition
Taste Receptors
Term
Olfactory Receptors
Definition
Scent receptors
Term
Electromagnetic Receptors
Definition

Stimulation by electromagnetic energy. Ex: Snake Perceiving heat

Ex: Whales detecting magnetic field

Ex: Humans detecting light

Term
What are the different types of eyes that invertabrates posess?
Definition
Light detection eyes and image forming eyes (compound or  single lens)
Term
Desribe an ocellus and name an animal that has them.
Definition
Ocelli are simple, light detection eyes that consist of a cup with a pigmented layer, and neural elements in the front that act as a screen. Planaria.
Term
Desribe a compound eye and name an animal that posesses them.
Definition
Compound eyes are image forming, and are made up of multiple ommatidia (facts, lens). They are accurate at detecting movement because each ommatidia is like an inidividual eye. Insects or crustaceans.
Term
Name an example of an invertebrate animal that has a single-lens eye.
Definition
Spiders, squids, ect.
Term
Cornea
Definition
The outermost covering of the eye. It is transparent and allows light into the eye.
Term
Pupil
Definition
The "doorway" of the eye. It regulates the amount of light entering the eye.
Term
Iris
Definition
The "door frame" of the eye. Surrounds the pupil.
Term
Lens
Definition
The part of the eye that focuses light on the back of the eye. The lens is a flattened disc that allows us to change the focus point.
Term
How do fish change their eye's focal point? In other words, how do their eyes dectect light at different angles?
Definition
Fish can move their lens back and forth to detect light at any angle.
Term
How do most mammals change their eye's focal point? In other words, how do their eyes dectect light at different angles?
Definition
Most mammals are able to change the shape of their lens (accomadation). Sensory ligaments hold the lens in place, while ciliary muscles bulge and flatten.
Term
Why do people need reading glasses as they age?
Definition
Because their lens looses elacticity, therefore they can not properly accomidate for all light angles.
Term
Retina
Definition
The inner surface of the eye. The retina contains photoreceptors (rods and cones). Bends 85% of light.
Term
Rods detect _____ ______.
Definition
Light intensity
Term
Cones detect ______.
Definition
Color
Term
Why is color vision common in lower vertebrates, but not mammals?
Definition
Most mammals are nocturnal, therefore it is more beneficial for them to have more rods for light detection.
Term
What is rhodopsin and what does it trigger?
Definition
Rhodopsin are the light absorbing structures in the eye, and they trigger a transduction pathway.
Term
What happens when rhodopspin absorbs light?
Definition
Retinal changes shape and separates from opsin, activating the opsin.
Term
Why does it take several minutes for eyes to adjust to the dark?
Definition
It takes several minutes because you must wait for retinal to rejoin with the opsin.
Term
What is "bleaching"?
Definition
The term used when retinal detaches from opsin in rhodopsin. Developed from the observation of frogs' eyes turning from red to white.
Term
In a DARK response, rhodopsin is (active/inactive), Na⁺ channels are (open/closed), and the rod is (hyperpolarized/depolarized).
Definition
In a DARK response, rhodopsin is inactive, Na⁺ channels are open and the rod is depolarized.
Term
In a LIGHT response, rhodopsin is (active/inactive), Na⁺ channels are (open/closed), and the rod is (hyperpolarized/depolarized).
Definition
In a LIGHT response, rhodopsin is active, Na⁺ channels are closed, and the rod is hyperpolarized.
Term
What is glutamate, and when is it released?
Definition
Glutamate is an inhibitory neurotransmitters that is release in the absence of light (when the rod depolarizes).
Term
Vertical Pathway
Definition
Pathway of visual processing that leads from the rod, to biopolar cell, to ganglion cell.
Term
Lateral Pathway
Definition
Pathway of visual processing where horizontal/amacrine cells link neighboring cells.
Term
Lateral Inhibition
Definition
Horizontal cells inhibit nearby cells from firing, which allows for auqity (no bluriness).
Term
What are the 3 types of skeletons?
Definition
Hydrostatic, internal, external
Term
What is a hydrostatic skeleton, how is movement achieved with one and what types of animals have one?
Definition
A skeletal system that relies on fluid-filled compartments for support. Movement through peristalisis. Animals include cnidarians, annelids, flatworms, nematodes.
Term
What is an exoskeleton composed of and what types of animals have one?
Definition
An exoskeleton is a rigid encasement of chitin or calcium carbonate. Exoskeletons must be periodically shed. Insects and crustaceans have exoskeleton.
Term
What are the benefits of an endoskeleton?
Definition
They grow with the body and are relatively lightweight.
Term
How many bones are in the human body?
Definition
206
Term
Axial Skeleton
Definition
Skull, verterbal column, rib cage
Term
Appendicular Skeleton
Definition
Upper/lower limbs
Term
What types of tissues does the skeletal system include?
Definition
Bone, cartilage, ligaments/tendons
Term
Name two types of joints and the movement enabled by them.
Definition

1. Ball and socket, enables 3d movement

2. Hinge, enables 2d movement

Term
Name the 5 functions of muscles.
Definition

1. Movement

2. Maintain posture

3. Support soft tissue

4. Guard entrances/exits

5. Maintain body temp.

Term
In what three ways does muscle produce movement?
Definition

1. Skeletal -- Movement

2. Cardiac -- Blood pressure

3. Smooth -- Propulsion (peristalisis, uteruine contractions)

Term
Prune Belly Syndrome
Definition
Results from a lack of abdominal muscles.
Term
Epimysium
Definition
The outside muscle covering. This forms into tendons.
Term
Perimysium
Definition
Divides muscle tissue into fascicles (compartments). This part of the muscle contains blood vessels and nerves.
Term
Endomysium
Definition
A layer of muscle that surrounds individual muscle fibers and ties them together.
Term
Sarcolemma
Definition
The cell membrane of a muscle cell.
Term
Sarcoplasma
Definition
The cytoplasm of a muscle cell.
Term
Transverse Tubules
Definition
A network of passageways in a muscle cell that is continuous with the external enviornment.
Term
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Definition
A specialized ER in a muscle cell. Is a storage container for Ca ⁺.
Term
Myofibrils
Definition
Cylinidrical structures in a muscle cell that contain contractile elements.
Term
What makes up the "triad" in a muscle fiber?
Definition
Transverse tubules, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and myofibrils
Term
Microfilaments
Definition
These are contractile proteins (actin and myosin) that are within myofibrils in a muscle fiber.
Term
Actin is a (thick/thin) filament.
Definition
Actin is a thin filament.
Term
Myosin is a (thick/thin) filament.
Definition
Myosin is a thick filament.
Term
Sarcomere
Definition
Repeating units of myofilaments.
Term
Z line/disc
Definition
The disc bewtween myosin and actin.
Term
M line/disc
Definition
Disc "stiching" holding myosin in place.
Term
I Band
Definition
Actin with the Z line. Light can pass through here.
Term
A Band
Definition
Includes myosin. Light can not pass through here.
Term
Describe the anantomy of a thick filament.
Definition
A thick  filament is composed of many myosin molecules. The have tails, where the molecules attach together, and heads, where they bind with thin filaments. (Looks like two golf clubs twisted together)
Term
Describe the anatomy of a thin filament.
Definition
Thin filaments are composed of 2 strands of interwoven actin molecules. They also have tropomyosin and troponin.
Term
Tropomyosin
Definition
Part of thin filaments in a myofibril of a muscle fiber. This is a protein that adheres tightly to actin and covers active sites.
Term
Troponin
Definition
Troponin is in the thin filments of myofibrils of muscle fibers. Troponin binds tropomyosin to actin.
Term
Sliding Filament Theory
Definition
Interactions between the thick and thin filaments of sarcomeres are responsible for muscle contraction.
Term
Neuromuscluar Junction
Definition
The junction between a neuron and a muscle fiber. Muscle fibers each only have 1 connection that is either on or off.
Term
What initiates cross-bridging in a muscel fiber?
Definition
Calcium released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Term
What is the role of creatine phosphate in muscle fiber cross-bridging events?
Definition
Creatine phosphate allows for quick phosphorylation of ADP. This is short term energy. The ATP created is used to detatch myosin from actin and to recock the myosin head.
Term
When does a cross-bridging event in a muscle fiber cease?
Definition
When the action potentials cease.
Term
What neurotransmitter is released to trigger a muscle contraction event?
Definition
Acetylcholine, which is always excitatory.
Term
Action potentials travel deep into a muscle fiber via _______ ______.
Definition
Transverse Tubules
Term
In a muscle contraction event, ______ binds with ______ to reveal the active sites on actin.
Definition
In a muscle contraction event, Ca++ binds with troponin to reveal the active sites on actin.
Term
What is acetylcholine broken down by?
Definition
Acetylcholinesterase
Term
At the end of a muscle fiber cross-bridging event, Ca++ returns to the _____ ______ via (active/passive) transport.
Definition
At the end of a muscle fiber cross-bridging event, Ca++ returns to the sarcoplasmic reticulum via active transport.
Term
Why does Rigor Mortis occur?
Definition
Ca++ can not return to the sarcoplasmic reticulum after a cross-bridging event in a muscle fiber.
Term
What causes Lou Gerig's Disease?
Definition
This is a nervous system disorder where signal pathways to the muscle are lost.
Term
What causes tetanus (disease)?
Definition
The tetanus bacteria produces a waste product that mimicks ACh and tells the muscles to contract.
Term
What causes disease from botulism?
Definition
The bacteria plugs receptors on muscle fibers, inhibiting synapses and muscle activity.
Term
Muscle Tension
Definition
The force exerted on an object by a contracting muscle.
Term
What regulates muscle tension production?
Definition
The number of muscle fibers activated and the frequency of stimulation.
Term
Motor Unit
Definition
A single motor neuron and the muscle fibers innervated by it.
Term
Recruitment
Definition
Addition/Summation of motor units to produce smooth, steady muscle tension.
Term
How many muscle fibers per motor unit are needed for fine control?
Definition
1-5 fibers
Term
How many muscle fibers per motor unit are needed for gross control?
Definition
1000's of fibers
Term
Twitch
Definition
A single stimulus-contraction-relaxation sequence of muscle fibers.
Term
Latent Period
Definition
During muscle tension production, the period between the stimulus and tension development.
Term
Contraction Phase
Definition
During muscle contraction, the period where muscle tension reaches its peak. Here Ca++ is released and cross-bridging begins.
Term
Relaxation stage
Definition
During a muscle contraction, the period when tension falls to resting level. Here Ca++ reuptake occurs and cross-bridging detachment.
Term
Incomplete Tetanus
Definition
In the muscle, rapid cycles of contraction and relaxation.
Term
Summation (muscle)
Definition
The addition of twitches to produce a more powerful contraction.
Term
Complete Tetanus
Definition
During muscle contraction, rapid stimulation erases the relaxation phase. This is observed in the animal body for most muscle contractions.
Term
What happens if a sarcomere is too contracted?
Definition
There is no room for movement and poor cross-bridging formation.
Term
What happens if a sarcomere is too stretched?
Definition
There is no cross-bridge formation.
Term
Regarding muscle stretch, where is maximal muscle force at?
Definition
Maximal muscle force is at/near normal resting lenght.
Term

What ultimately controls each of the following: Skeletal Muscle

                   Cardiac Muscle

                    Smooth Muscle

Definition

Skeletal -- Neurons

Cardiac -- Automaticity (pacemaker cells)

Smooth -- Neurons, automaticity, hormones

Term
Where is the Ca++ source for smooth muscle?
Definition
Across the sarcolemma
Term
Where is the Ca++ source for cardiac muscle?
Definition
The sarcoplasmic reticulum or across the sarcomlemma.
Term
In which of the following does tetanus occur: Skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
Definition
Tentanus can occur in skeletal and smooth muscle, but NOT cardiac
Term
How are filaments organized in smooth muscle?
Definition
Sarcomeres are scattered throughout the sarcoplasm.
Term
How are filaments organized in skeletal muscle?
Definition
Sarcomeres are aligned along myofibrils.
Term
How are filaments organized in cardiac muscle?
Definition
Sarcomeres are aligned along myofibrils.
Term
Endocrine System
Definition
Slow and long duration communication via hormones and various cells that secrete/receive them.
Term
Gland
Definition
A group of cells that secrete substances into the bloodstream.
Term
What type of cells are glands made of?
Definition
Glandular Secretory Cells, which are epithelial tissue (cube-shaped and in a simple layer).
Term
Exocrine Glands
Definition
Ducts; they secrete substances outside of the body, such as sweat glands.
Term
Hormone
Definition
Chemical messengers released by one cell to travel to another cell where an effect is observed.
Term
What are the three classes of hormones, and which is largest?
Definition

1. Amino acid derivatives

2. Peptide hormones (largest)

3. Steroid hormones

Term
What is and example of an amino acid derivative hormone?
Definition
Epinephrine
Term
What is an example of a peptide hormone?
Definition
Insulin
Term
What is an example of a steroid hormone?
Definition
Testosterone, estrogen
Term
Prostaglandins
Definition
Fatty acid derivatives that induce inflammation.
Term
Target Cells
Definition
Cells specialized to respond to hormones.
Term
What are some ways that target cells respond to hormones (generally)?
Definition
They alter cells by changing identities, activites, or quantities of proteins.
Term
Chemical signals are ______ _______, therefore they can have multiple effects.
Definition
Chemical signals are receptor dependent therefore they can have multiple effects.
Term
Chemical signals can reach their receptors via one of these two systems depending on size and charge.
Definition

1. The second messenger system for large and charged signals.

2. Intracellular receptor system for hydrophobic signals.

Term
Do peptide hormones use the 2nd messeger system or the intracellular receptor system?
Definition
The 2nd messenger system because they are large and charged.
Term
Do steroids use the 2nd messeger system or the intracellular receptor system?
Definition
The intracellular receptor system because they are smaller and hydrophobic.
Term
Describe the 2nd messenger system in the endocrine system.
Definition
First, the chemical signal reaches are recetor on the cell membrane. This triggers a 2nd messenger, which then triggers biochemical rxns and a response.
Term
Name 3 examples of 2nd messengers in the 2nd messenger system of the endocrine system.
Definition
cAMP, cGMP, Ca++
Supporting users have an ad free experience!