Term
| Main cause of 14th century famine |
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Definition
| 1.) The MAIN cause of 14th century famines were the “little ice age” which was a small drop in overall temperatures that resulted in shortened growing seasons and disastrous weather conditions which destroyed European harvests and caused serious food shortages |
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Term
| Black death at areas of its spread and devastation |
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Definition
| . gone for a while, came from invading Mongols…moved south to north |
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Term
| Psychological reactions to the great plague |
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Definition
| 3.) Psychological Reactions to the Great Plague: people living for the moment, sexual and alcoholic orgies, people fled to summer homes, Flagellants wandered from town to town |
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Term
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Definition
| thougth asceticism could atone for humanity’s sins, whipped themselves thinking it would get rid of plague (exterminated when they attacked Jews and clergy) |
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Term
| origins of the 100 years war |
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Definition
| 5.) French king Phillip IV died without a child, closest male heir to the French throne was the son of King Phillip IV’s daughter, king Edward III of England. The immediate cause of the 100 years war was King Edward III and duke of Gascony refused to do homage (pay France money) for occupying Gascony, a French territory. French king seizes Gascony, Edward responds by declaring war |
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Term
| end of 1st phase of 100 year war in 1359 |
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Definition
| Treaty of Bretigny made after English defeated French in Battle of Potiers (Even King John II was captured)…had to pay ransom and return throne |
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Term
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Definition
| 7.) Joan Of Arc had dreams where she was commanded to free France and crown the Dauphin king, She inspired the French armies to find new confidence and capture the Loire Valley and in doing so the Dauphin was crowned king Charles VII |
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Term
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Definition
| stated four lay princes and three ecclesiastical rulers would serve as electors with legal power to elect king of Romans and and future emperor |
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Term
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Definition
| 9.) To fight battles, city-states came to rely on mercenary soldiers, whose leaders, called condottieri, sold the services of their bands to the highest bidder. These mercenaries wreaked havoc on the countryside, living by blackmail and looting when they were not actively engaged in battles. |
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Term
| Category of rulers in florence for most of 13+14th centuries |
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Definition
| popolo grasso controlled by establishing Ordinance of Justice which formed seven major guilds benefitting wealthy. Executive power came from elected priors (signoria) and justice came from (gonfaloniere). Shopkeepers (popollo minut0) took control for a little, but lost it |
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Term
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Definition
| Pope Boniface VIII issued a series of papal bulls, letters, where he declared that the church had universal sovereignty and no clergy could pay French taxes without Pope’s consent. Phillip IV was infuriated by the popes papal bulls and sent an army that captured pope Boniface VIII. Pope Boniface soon died proving royal sovereignty of the monarch to be more powerful. |
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Term
| Characteristics of papacy at Avignon |
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Definition
| . Pope was captive of French monarchy. Centralized administration by focusing papal and cardinal power. Started taxing clergy a lot |
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Term
| Overall results of the Great SChism |
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Definition
| 13.) The Overall results of the Great Schism were that the faith of the Christian believers were badly damaged and greatly aggravated the financial abuses |
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Term
| Charactersitics of 14th century mysticism |
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Definition
| immediate experience of oneness with God. Meister Eckhart lead German philosophy. Lead to Modern Devotion which promoted inner piety and helping others, avoiding the complexities of theology |
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Term
| parent-child relationships in the middle ages |
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Definition
| 15.) Parents in the High and Later Middle Ages invested considerable resources and affection in rearing their children |
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Term
| inventions of the 14th century |
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Definition
| invented clock, eyeglasses, paper, gunpowder, and cannons |
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Term
| economic developments of the Renaissance |
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Definition
| Venetians continued to prosper, Woolen industries recovered, New machinery and techniques for mining, as well as the Medici banking in Florence |
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Term
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Definition
| . shortage of slaves meant there was a necessity for slaves. Africans, Muslims, and Meditteraneans were generally slaves. When Turks conquered Byzantine Empire, trade stopped, which lead to higher priced European slaves. Demand of Africans went up |
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Term
| marriages in renaissance Italia |
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Definition
| 19.) Parents gave careful attention to arrange marriages, often to strengthen business or family ties. |
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Term
| Federigo da Montefeltro of Urbino |
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Definition
| Well-educated, honest, benevolent, and well-liked. Hired self out as a condottieri, which meant he was hired out as a general |
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Term
| Peace of Lodi 1454...example of |
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Definition
| 21.) Peace of Lodi, which ended almost a half-century of war was an example of a balance of power, designed to prevent the aggrandizement of any one state at the expense of the others |
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Term
| Machiavelli's concepts introduced in THE PRINCE |
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Definition
| Took a moderate, realistic approach, insisting the Prince should act on behalf of the state, not moral principles. Promoted putting conscious to sleep and expanding political power. |
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Term
| Neoplatonism mid-15th century Italy |
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Definition
| 23.) Neoplatonism was based on 2 primary ideas, the neoplatonic hierarchy of substances and a theory of spiritual love |
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Term
| Pico della Mirandola's ORATION ON THE DIGNITY OF MAN |
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Definition
| . looked for many pieces of universal truth in other philosopher’s work…Offered statement of unlimited human potential |
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Term
| Characteristics of liberal education-Vittorino da feltre |
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Definition
| 25.) Characteristics of liberal education: History, moral philosophy, eloquence(rhetoric), letters (grammar and logic), poetry, mathematics, astronomy, and music |
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Term
| subjects studied in the Liberal Arts |
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Definition
| LIBERAL STUDIES INCLUDED HISTORY, MORAL PHILOSOPHY, ELOQUENCE, (RHETORIC), LETTERS (GRAMMAR AND LOGIC), POETRY, MATH, ASTRONOMY, AND MUSIC. All done so to provide virtue and wisdom. |
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Term
| Innovations by Italian artists in 15th century |
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Definition
| hey...logan, you mind answering this one? |
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Term
| characteristics of Northern renaissance artists |
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Definition
| Northern Renaissance artists paid a lot of attention to detail and backgrounds. Emphasized emotional intensity of religious feeling. |
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Term
| patrons of renaissance music |
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Definition
| 29.) Guillaume Dufay, perhaps the most important composer of his era. One of Dufay’s greatest contributions was a change in the composition of the Mass. He used secular tunes for the basis of mass |
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Term
| characteristics of the 'new monarchs" of the late 15th century in Europe |
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Definition
| worked through diplomacy to avoid war, though they also expanded taxes to provide income for the state. Also promoted Catholocism as a way to control masses. Eastern Monarchies sucked, as usual |
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Term
| Max I of the Holy Roman Empire |
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Definition
| 31.) Maximilian’s only real success lay in his marriage alliances |
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Term
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Definition
| Henry VII reduced internal dissension and established a strong government. Stopped livery and maintenance, which had previously allowed nobles to hold private armies, ending feuds. Nobles were also controlled and tortured by Court of Star Champer. Received income from English monarch, through crown land, fines, and custom duties. Use of diplomacy over war made him not burdened to always contact Parliament. Lack of taxes earned support from middle class. |
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Term
| Ferdinand of Aragon in Spain |
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Definition
| 33.) Ferdinand of Aragon controlled the catholic church and pursued a policy of strict religious uniformity (Catholicism |
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Term
| Louis XI the Spider of France |
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Definition
| Louis XI was known as Spider for being so devious. He made the taille permanent. Created a strong base for a later development of French monarchy |
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Term
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Definition
| 35.) English Lollardy was a product of the Oxford theologian John Wyclif who attacked papal authority and medieval Christian beliefs and practices for its clerical corruption. HE believed that the bible should be a christian’s sole authority not papal authority. |
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Term
| characteristics of the Renaissance papacy |
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Definition
| Temporal preoccupations overshadowed spiritual leadership. Used Nepotism (appointing family as cardinals) to create dynasties. Generally overall scumbags |
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Term
| Erasmus' beliefs about the church |
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Definition
| hey...logan, you mind answering this one? |
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Term
| Doctorine of transubstantiation |
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Definition
| belief that bread and wine becomes actual body and blood of Jesus. Luther denied this ideal |
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Term
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Definition
| hey...logan, you mind answering this one? |
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Term
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Definition
| Anabaptists saw church as voluntary association of believers who had undergone spiritual rebirth and been baptized in the church. They advocated adult baptism, followed strict democracy where all leaders were equal, all people were priests to anyone could be chosen minister, Lord’s Supper interpreted as meal of fellowship and lived according to Word of God, Did not own guns and refused to be involved with politics. |
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Term
| Reign of Queen Mary of England |
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Definition
| . Reign of Queen Mary of England – Catholic who fully intended to restore England to the Roman Catholic fold; her restoration of Catholicism aroused opposition; married to Philip II (Future king of Spain); her foreign policy of alliance w/ Spain aroused hostility; she managed to achieve the opposite of what she had intended (England was more Protestant); now people identified Protestantism w/ English resistance to Spanish interference |
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Term
| Calvinist actions in Geneva |
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Definition
| They enforced moral discipline and created a court to oversee these actions. They threatened people with excommunication and public whippings |
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Term
| reformation affect on European education |
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Definition
| How the Reformation affected education in Europe – Renaissance humanism had significantly altered the content of education in Europe – broadened the base of the people being educated. Introduction of the gymnasium – humanist emphasis on the liberal arts based on instruction in Greek and Latin was combined w/ religious instruction |
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Term
| catholic reformation and jesuits |
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Definition
| The Catholic Reformation & the Jesuits – Catholic Church came to be directed by a revived & reformed papacy – some elements of reformation were aimed @ stopping the spread of Protestantism. Revived the best features of medieval Catholicism & adjusted them to meet new conditions (revival of mysticism & monasticism) Jesuits: came to resemble the structure of a military command. Important instrument for papal policy due to a special vow of absolute ordinance to the pope. 3 main things: 1) established highly disciplined schools borrowing from humanist schools for their educational methods 2) propagation of Catholic faith among non-christians 3) carry catholic banner & fight Protestantism |
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Term
| greatest royal advocate of miltant catholocism |
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Definition
| . Greatest Royal advocate of militant Catholicism – King Phillip II of Spain. His reign ushered in an age of Spanish greatness. His attempts to make Spain a great power led to large debts & crushing taxes & his military actions in defense of Catholicism ended in failure & misfortune in France & Netherlands |
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Term
| Elizabeth I of England and religion |
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Definition
| Elizabeth I of England & religion – Religious policy based on moderation & compromise – wished to prevent England from being torn apart over matters of religion |
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Term
| 1440's origin of most Portugeuse profits from exploration and trade |
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Definition
| 1440s origin of most Portuguese profits from exploration & trade – 1441 Portuguese ships reached the Senegal River & in years following gradually crept down African coast discovering slaves, gold, & ivory |
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Term
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Definition
| Bartholome de Las Casas – participated in the conquest of Cuba & received land & Indians in return for his efforts. 1514 underwent a radical transformation & came to believe that the Indians had been cruelly mistreated by his fellow Spaniards. Became a Dominican friar & spent rest of his life fighting for the Indians |
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Term
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Definition
| conqueror of Mexico; 1519 landed @ Veracruz and made alliances w/ city-states that had tired the oppressive rule of the Aztecs as he marched to Tenochtitlan. Devastation wrought by smallpox had won a great victory for him; minor Spanish noblemen, waged an independent campaign of conquest & overthrew the Aztec Empire in Mexico |
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Term
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Definition
| set up port @ Goa – became headquarters for Portuguese operations throughout entire region. 1511: sailed into the harbor of Malacca & took control which would serve 2 purposes: a) could help destroy Arab spice trade b) provide Portuguese w/ a way station on the route to Moluccas (Spice Islands) |
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Term
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Definition
| If this question is on the test, everyone blame nicole because she didnt do her job |
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Term
| General observations about the 30 Years’ War |
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Definition
| devastating war that affected much of Europe & rebellions everywhere protracted the atmosphere of disorder & violence. Bohemian Phase (1618-1625), Danish Phase (1625-1629), Swedish Phase (1630-1635), Franco-Swedish Phase. Outcomes: Peace of Westphalia, economic/social efforts on Germany = debated |
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Term
| Imprisonment of the local British population in India’s Fort William – “Black Hole of Calcutta” |
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Definition
| an underground prison for holding the prisoners, many of whom died in captivity |
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Term
| Differences between the British & French colonies in the Americas |
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Definition
| British: assigned roles in keeping w/ mercantilist theory, consisted of 13 colonies that had legislatures that tended to act independently. French: run autocratically as a vast trading area, thinly populated, first to break into the Spanish Latin American market |
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Term
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Definition
| privilege British were granted to transport 4,500 slaves a year into Spanish Latin American |
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Term
| . Main tenents of Mercantilism |
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Definition
| a set of economic tendencies that came to dominate economic practices in 17th century. Jean-Baptiste Colbert. Mercantilism focused on the role of the state, believing that state intervention in some aspects of the economy was desirable for the sake of the national good |
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Term
| Witch hunts of the 16th & 17th century |
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Definition
| 16th/17th: increased # of trials/executions of presumed witches. Many trails occurred in areas where Protestantism had been recently victorious or in regions where Protestant-Catholic controversies still raged. Problems of a society in turmoil explain the witchcraft hysteria |
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Term
| Jacques Boussuet’s Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture |
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Definition
| argued 1st that govt was divinely ordered so that humans could live in an organized society, God established kings & through them reigned over all the peoples of the world, since kings received their power from God their authority was absolute, they were responsible to no one except God |
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Term
| Successes of Cardinal Richelieu |
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Definition
| strengthened royal authority by eliminating the private armies & fortified cities of the Huguenots & by crushing aristocratic conspiracies; developed an efficient network of spies to uncover noble plots & then crushed the conspiracies & executed the conspirators (eliminated major threat to royal authority) |
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Term
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Definition
| 1st Fronde was ended by a compromise; 2nd Fronde was crushed by 1652. Results: the vast majority of the French concluded that the best hope for stability in France lay in the crown |
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Term
| Louis XIV’s restructuring of govt |
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Definition
| during Louis XIV’s rule France had traditionally been regarded as the best example of an absolute monarchy. He was able to restructure the central policy-making machinery of government. He dominated his ministers & secretaries – gave him authority over the traditional areas of monarchial power: formulation of foreign policy, making of war & peace, assertion of secular power of crown against any religious authority, ability to levy taxes to fulfill these funtcions |
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Term
| Economic policies of Jean-Baptists Colbert |
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Definition
| theories – He sought to increase wealth & power of France through general adherence to mercantilism – stressed government regulation of economic activities to benefit the state. Policies geared to making his king more powerful – ultimately self defeating |
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Term
| . Holy Roman Empire – after 1648 |
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Definition
| Thirty Years’ War left HRE virtually autonomous & sovereign, there was no longer a German state but rather more than three hundred little Germanies |
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Term
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Definition
| advocated such advanced ideas as freedom of speech, religious toleration, & a democratic republic. Called for annual Parliaments, women = w/ men, & government programs to care for the poor |
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Term
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Definition
| enacted into law 1689. Affirmed Parliament’s right to make laws & levy taxes & made it impossible for kings to oppose/do w/o Parliament by stipulating that standing armies could be raised only w/ consent of Parliament. Helped fashion a system of government based on the rule of law & a freely elected Parliament -> laid foundation for a constitutional monarchy |
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Term
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Definition
| viewed the exercise of political power differently from Hobbes. Argued against the absolute rule of one man. His expertise during the Glorious Revolution incorporated into Two Treatises of Government. Believed that humans lived then in a state of equality & freedom rather than a state of war. Humans had natural rights – life, liberty, & property |
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Term
| Concepts of the universe before the Scientific Revolution |
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Definition
| middle ages = period of scientific ignorance. Late medieval scholastic philosophers were subjected to a strict theological framework & their unquestioning reliance on a few ancient authorities limited where they could go; preferred refined logical analysis to systematic observations of the natural world |
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Term
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Definition
| studied math & astronomy @ Krakow in his native Poland & later @ Bologna & Padua. Wrote On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (not published until shortly before his death). Mathematicians who felt that Ptolemy’s geocentric system was too complicated. Hoped his heliocentric (sun-centered) conception would offer a simpler & more accurate explanation. Conservative – didn’t reject Aristotle’s principle of the existence of the heavenly spheres moving in circular orbits |
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Term
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Definition
| Danish nobleman. Worked on island near Copenhagen. Concentrated on compiling a detailed record of his observations. Rejected the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic system but didn’t think Earth actually moved. Imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II |
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Term
| Galileo’s observations & their conclusions |
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Definition
| they demolished yet another aspect of the traditional cosmology in that the universe seemed to be composed of material substance similar to that of the earth rather than ethereal or perfect & unchanging substance |
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Term
| Galileo’s ideas on motion |
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Definition
| 2 contributions: 1) demonstrated by experiments that if a uniform force was applied to an object, it would move @ an accelerated speed rather than a constant speed 2) discovered principle of inertia when he argued that a body in motion continues in motion forever unless deflected by an external force |
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Term
| Newton’s universal law of gravitation |
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Definition
| explained why the planetary bodies didn’t go off in straight lines but continued in elliptical orbits about the sun. He explained that every object in the universe was attracted to every other object w/ a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses |
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Term
| On the Fabric of the Human Body |
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Definition
| 1543 by Vesalius. Based on his Paduan lectures in which he deviated from traditional practice by personally dissecting a body to illustrate what he was discussing |
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Term
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Definition
| attended Cambridge University & Padua where he received his doctorate. Reputation rests on his book On the Motion of the Heart and Blood. His theory of the circulation of the blood laid the foundation for modern physi |
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Term
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Definition
Philippus Aureolus von Hohenheim (renamed himself Paracelsus) rejected the works of both Aristotle and Galen and attacked the universities as centers of their moribund philosophy
• Hoped to replace the traditional system with a new chemical philosophy that was based on an understanding of nature, derived from observation and experiment; closely connected to a view of the universe based on the macrocosm-microcosm analogy (stated that humans were small replicas of the larger world)
• Believed that disease was due to chemical imbalances that were localized in specific organs and could be treated by chemical remedies; “like cures like” in proper form and quantity
• Known by some as the “father of modern medicine |
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Term
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Definition
Galen relied on animal dissection to arrive at a picture, and instruction in anatomy relied on Galen into the Later Middle Ages
• Physiology was dominated by the Galenic hypotheses; included belief that there were two separate blood systems
• Galen’s doctrine of the four bodily humors highly influenced treatment of disease |
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Term
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Definition
• Cavendish was not a popularize of science for women but a participant in the crucial scientific achievements of the time; but still excluded from Royal Society
• Wrote a number of works on scientific matters, including Observations upon Experimental Philosophy and Grounds of Natural Philosophy; did not hesitate to attack what she considered the defects of the rationalist and empiricist approaches to scientific |
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Term
| The philosophy of Rene Descartes |
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Definition
• Descartes began by doubting everything except his own existence; emphasized the mind and only accepted those things that reason said were true
• Using mind or human reason, the path to certain knowledge , and its best instrument, mathematics, humans can understand the material world because it is pure mechanism, a machine that is governed by its own physical laws because it was created by God
• Father of rationalism |
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Term
| Position of organized religion in the 17th century |
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Definition
| P. 503-504 (Rosie, page numbers don't really count as answers, you have to read the page, then write down what you read) |
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Term
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Definition
Defined the Enlightenment as “man’s leaving his self-caused immaturity”
• Proclaimed the motto of the Enlightenment to be “Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence |
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Term
| Fontenelle and the beliefs expressed in his works |
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Definition
Bernard de Fontenelle is important as a direct link between the Scientific Revolution of the 17th century and the philosophes of the 18th
• Secretary of the French Royal Academy of Science
• Able to communicate scientific knowledge in a clear and witty fashion that appealed to upper class audiences in a meaningful way
• Plurality of Worlds was presented in the form of an intimate conversation between a lady aristocrat and her lover; the lady learns the basic fundamentals of the new mechanic universe from her lover
• Downplayed the religious backgrounds of the 17th century scientist; he was a skeptic |
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Term
| Bayle’s Historical and Critical Dictionary |
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Definition
Pierre Bayle was a leading critic of traditional religious attitudes
• In Historical and Critical Dictionary, Bayle undermined the traditional picture of the heroic David, portraying him as a sensual, treacherous, cruel, and basically evil man |
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Term
| . John Locke’s philosophy about individual character |
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Definition
| Locke argued that each person was born with a blank mind and our knowledge is derived from our environment, not from heredity; from reason, not faith |
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Term
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Definition
• Philosophes were literary people, professors, journalists, statesmen, economists, political scientists, and social reformers; coming from both the nobility and the middle class
• To philosophes, reason was scientific method and a spirit of rational criticism was to be applied to everything, including religion and politics
• Often forced to publish under pseudonyms or anonymously or abroad |
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Term
| Montesquieu’s The Spirit of the Laws |
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Definition
This treatise was a comparative study of governments in which Montesquieu attempted to apply the scientific method to the social and political arena to ascertain the “natural laws” governing the social relationships of human beings
• Most lasting contribution was separation of powers |
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Term
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Definition
| Holbach was a wealthy German aristocrat who settled in Paris, preached a doctrine of strict atheism and materialism |
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Term
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Definition
Condorcet was a French philosophe who was a victim of the Reign of Terror and wrote his chef work, The Progress of the Human Mind, while in hiding
• Survey of human history convinced him that humans had progressed through nine stages of history and were about to enter the tenth stage, of perfection |
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Term
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Definition
| Diderot wrote the Encyclopedia, or Classified Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades and it became a major weapon of the philosophes’ crusade against old French society; attacked religious superstition and advocated toleration as well as a program for social, legal, and political improvements that would lead to a society that was more cosmopolitan, more tolerant, more humane, and more reasonable |
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Term
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Definition
was the leader of the Physiocrats and a successful French court physician
• Claimed they would discover the natural economic laws that governed human society; rejected the mercantilist emphasis on the significance of money as primary determinants of wealth |
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Term
| Points argued in d’Holbach’s System of Nature (1770) |
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Definition
| • In System of Nature, he argued that everything in nature consisted of matter in motion; humans were simply machines and God was a product of the human mind and was unnecessary for leading a moral life |
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Term
| Rousseau’s beliefs about inequality and crime |
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Definition
| 518-519 (Rosie, page numbers don't really count as answers, you have to read the page, then write down what you read) |
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Term
| Rococo artistic style—characteristics of and primary artists |
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Definition
Emphasized grace and gentle action, rejected geometrical patterns and had a fondness for curves, followed the wandering lines of natural objects
• Antoine Watteau, Balthasar Neumann |
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Term
| Changes and characteristics of European music in the Later 18th century |
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Definition
| Classical music began to develop and the opera and oratorio, the sonata, the concerto, and the symphony became more popular |
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Term
| Developments in European education in the 18th century |
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Definition
Europe was home to a large number of privately endowed secondary schools; tending to be designed to meet the needs of the children of the upper classes of society
• Schools perpetuated the class hierarchy of Europe rather than creating avenues for social mobility
• Curriculum focused on Greek and Latin classics with little attention toward mathematics, the sciences, and modern languages |
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Term
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Definition
| Rosie, you didn't really write anything for this one |
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Term
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Definition
| Pietism was a desire for a deeper personal devotion to God, founded by German clerics and spread by the teachings of Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf |
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Term
| Concept of Divine Right in the 18th century |
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Definition
| everyone blame rosie for not answering this one |
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Term
| Enlightened absolutism in the 18th century |
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Definition
Enlightened absolutism emerged in the 18th century as monarchs followed the advice of philosophes and ruled by enlightened principles, establishing a path to modern nationhood
• Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria ruled by enlightened absolutism |
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Term
| General characteristics of France in the 18th century |
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Definition
| "I refuse to write this" Quote by Rosie Reilly, way to be a team player |
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Term
| Prussia under the reign of Frederick William I |
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Definition
Frederick William I promoted the evolution of Prussia’s highly efficient civil bureaucracy by establishing the General Directory, which served as the chief administrative agent of the central government, supervising military, police, economic, and financial affairs
• Strove to maintain a highly efficient bureaucracy of civil service workers
• Rigid class stratification that had emerged in 17th century persisted
• Encourage men of non-noble birth to serve in administrative posts |
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Term
| Enlightened legal reforms expressed by Catherine the Great in her Instruction |
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Definition
Catherine questioned the institutions of serfdom, torture, and capital punishment and advocated the principle of the equality of all people in the eyes of the law
• Catherine divided Russia into 50 provinces; but in the end her policies ended up repressing the peasants and favoring landowners and nobility |
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Term
| Catherine the Great of Russia |
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Definition
Catherine II the Great was autocrat of all Russia; she was an intelligent woman who was familiar with the works of the philosophes
• Wished to reform Russia along with the lines of Enlightenment ideas but realized that her success depended on the support of the palace guard and gentry class from which it stemmed
• Initially began to pursue reform but nothing changed after a year and a half
• In the end, her policies were not in favor of peasants and instead benefitted landowners, gentry, and the nobility |
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Term
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Definition
| an illiterate Cossack who succeeded in welding the disparate elements of discontent into a mass revolt |
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Term
| Poland in the late 18th century |
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Definition
did not have a strong monarchy; Polish king was elected by the Polish nobles and forced to accept drastic restrictions on his power
• Austria, Russia, and Prussia divided Poland between the three of them; remaining Polish state was supposedly independent but really dominated by the Russians
• Poles made two attempts to rebel and establish a monarchy but both failed |
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Term
| Spain in the 18th century reforms and decline |
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Definition
Spain experienced a change of dynasties from the Habsburgs to the Bourbons; which provided an opportunity to centralize the institutions of the state
• Under Philip V, the laws, administrative institutions, and language of Castile were established in the other Spanish kingdoms, making the king of Castile truly the king of Spain
• During the reign of Charles III, the Catholic Church was brought under royal control when the king banished the Jesuits and circumscribed the activities of the Inquisition |
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Term
| . King Frederick the Great of Prussia—beliefs about government |
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Definition
• Frederick was one of the best-educated and most cultured monarchs in the 18th century; well versed in the Enlightenment
• Became a conscious ruler who made few innovations in the administration of the state
• Established a single code of laws for his territories that eliminated the use of torture except in treason and murder cases
• Granted limited freedom of speech and press and complete religious toleration
• Frederick was a social conservative who made Prussian society even more aristocratic than it was before
• Reversed his father’s policy allowing commoners to rise to power in the civil service and reserved the higher positions in the bureaucracy for members of the nobility |
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Term
| European Warfare in the 18th century |
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Definition
| The development of large standing armies ensured that political disputes would periodically be resolved with armed conflict rather than diplomacy |
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Term
| Financial innovation in the 18th century |
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Definition
A decline in the supply of gold and silver in the 17th century had created a chronic shortage of money that undermined the efforts of governments to meet their needs
• Establishment of new public and private banks and the acceptance of paper notes made possible an expansion of credit |
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Term
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Definition
| The grand tour was aspect of the Enlightenment in which sons of aristocrats completed their education by making a tour of Europe’s major cities |
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