Term
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Definition
| A loss of memory for events and information subsequent to the trauma or other event that precipitated the amnesia. It involves an inability to form new memories. |
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Term
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Definition
| A loss of memory for events that occurred or information that was acquired prior to the trauma or other event that caused the amnesia. |
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Term
| Aversive Counterconditionaing |
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Definition
| (Aversion therapy) Based on counterconditioning and reduces the attractiveness of a stimulus or behavior by repeatedly pairing it with a stimulus that produces an undesirable or unpleasant response. Pairing alcohol consumption with electric shock to reduce alcohol use is an example of aversive counterconditioning. In this situation, the alcohol is the CS and the electric shock is the US. |
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Term
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Definition
| Provides the individual with immediate and continuous feedback about an ongoing physiological process (eg. muscle tension, blood pressure) with the goal of enabling the individual to exercise voluntary control over that process. It seems to be particularly useful for treating Raynaud's disease and certain forms of urinary and fecal incontinence. For other disorders (eg. hypertension, tension headaches), it is about equally effective as relaxation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Combines classical and operant conditioning and is believed to underlie the acquisition of complex behaviors that consist of individual responses ("behavior chains"). It involves establishing a sequence of responses with each response or stimulus associated with it acting as both a secondary reinforcer for the previous responseand a discriminative stimulus for the following response. |
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Term
| Classical Conditionaing (CS/CR, US/UR) |
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Definition
| A neutral (conditioned) stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neurtal stimulus alone eventually elicits the response that is naturally produced by the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov's original studies, the meat powder was the unconditioned stimulus and salivation was the unconditioned response. A tone was the conditioned stimulus. As the result of pairing the tone with the meat powder, teh tone eventually elicited salivation -the conditioned response. |
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Term
| Classical Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery |
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Definition
| Classical extinction is the gradual elimination of a classically conditioned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. Often, an extinguished response shows spontaneous recovery - ig. it recurs following extinction. |
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Term
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Definition
| Beck's CT is a form that views depression and other psychopathology as the product of certain cognitive phenomena including dysfunctional cognitive schemas, automatic thoughts, and cognitive distortions. CT is referred to as "collaborative empiricism" because of its emphasis on the collaborative relationship between therapist and client. Cognitive therapists often use Socratic dialogue (questioning) in order to help the client reach logical conclusions about a problem and its consequences. |
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Term
| Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement |
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Definition
| 2 or more simultaneous and independent schedules of reinforcement, each for a different response. In this situation, the organism matches its relative frequency of responding to the relative frequency of reinforcement for each response. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of contingency management that involves a formal written agreement between two or more people that clearly defines the behaviors that are to be modified and the rewards and punishments that will follow performance of those behaviors. Behavioral change may be required by one or all parties to the contract. |
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Term
| Differential Reinforcement |
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Definition
| An operant technique that combines positive reinforcement and extinction. During a specified period of time, the individual is reinforced when she engages in behaviors other than the target behavior. The alternative behaviors are reinforced, while the target behavior is extinguished. |
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Term
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Definition
| Originaly developed as an intervention for PTSD. It combines rapid lateral eye movements with exposure and other techniques drawn from cgnitive, behavioral, psychodynamic approaches. Some research suggests that its effectiveness does not depend on rapid eye movements but, instead, on exposure to the feared event. |
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Term
| Escape and Avoidance Conditioning |
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Definition
| Escape conditioning is an application of negative reinforcement in which the target behavior is an escape behavior. Avoidance conditioning combines classical conditioning with negative reinforcement. Through avoidance conditioning, an organism learns to make a particular response in the presence of a positive discriminative stimulus so that it can avoid an unpleasant stimulus. |
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Term
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Definition
| Includes (a) the gradual withdrawal of prompts when teaching a new response; and (b) a procedure used to eliminate an inappropriate stimulus-response connection by gradually replacing the inappropriate stimulus wih appropriate stimuli so that the response becomes associated with the latter. |
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Term
| Forward Conditioning (Delay Conditioning) |
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Definition
| In classical conditioning, refers to the presentation of the CS prior to (or simultaneously wih) the US. Of the methods of forward conditioning, delay conditioning is most effective n producing a conditioned response. In delay conditioning, the CS precedes and overlaps the US. |
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Term
| Higher-Order Conditioning |
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Definition
| In classical conditioning, the situation in which a previously-established CS is used essentially as a US to establish a conditioned response for a new sonditioned (neutral) stimulus. |
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Term
| Information Processing Model |
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Definition
| (Multi-store) model of memory describes teh encoding, storage, and retrieval of information as involving three separate, but interacting, stages: sensory memory (sensory register), short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory provides brief storage of sensory stimuli. While it seems to be capable of storing a great deal of information, this information is retained for no more htan a few seconds. Inforamtin in sensory memory is transferred to short-term memory (STM) when it becomes the focus of attention. STM holds a limited amount of information, and without rehearsal, informaion in STM begins to fade within 30 seconds. Although the process involved in converting information from STM to long-term memory is not well understood, it is likely due to the type of rehearsal: Information is more likely to be transferred to LTM with elaborative rehearsal, which involves relating new inforamion to existin ginformaion. The capacity of LTM seems to be unlimited. |
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Term
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Definition
| Kohler. Also referred to as "the aha" experience. Refers to the apparent sudden understanding of the relationship between elements in a problem-solving situation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Proposes that the inability to learn or recall information is due to the disrupting effects of previously or subsequently learned information. Proactive interference is the inability to learn or recall new information as the result of the effects of previously-learned information; retroactive interference occurs when the inability to remember previously-learned inormation is due to the acquisition of new information. |
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Term
| In Vivo Exposure with Response Prevention |
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Definition
| Flooding. A classical extinction technique that involves exposign the individual to high anxiety-arousing stimuli (the CS) without the original US. |
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Term
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Definition
| Tolman's model proposes that learning can occur without reinforcement and without being manifested in actual performance improvement. His research showed that rats formed "cognitive maps of mazes even without being reinforced for doing so. |
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Term
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Definition
| Thorndike. Proposes that, when behaviors are followed by "satisfying consequences," they are more likely to increase or occur again. |
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Term
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Definition
| A theory of depression that proposes that some forms of depression are due to a tendency to attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global factors. According to a more recent version of teh theory, attributions mediate depression to the extent that they contribute to a sense of hopelessness. |
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Term
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Definition
| Proposes that differences in memory are not due to different stores or stags but to different levels of processing. The semantic level is the deepest level of processing and leads to the best retention. |
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Term
| Metamemory and Metacognition |
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Definition
| Metamemory refers to knowledge about one's own memory processes. It is one aspect of metacognition, which refers to "knowing about knwoing" ie. awareness and monitoring of one's own cognitive state. |
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Term
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Definition
| Memory strategies that rely on imagery, organization, and other techniques. Teh method of loci is a mnemonic that employs imagery inwhich items to be remembered are mentally placed, one by one, in pre-memorized (familiar) locations; recall involves mentally "walking through" the location and retrieving the items. The keyword method, another imagery technique, is useful for paired associate tasks in which two words must be linked. |
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Term
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Definition
| (Guided Participation) Bandura's observational learning theory predicts that behaviors can be acquired simply by observing someone else (a model) perform those behaviors: ie. the acquisition of behavior is due largely to social influences and that learning is cognitively mediated and involves four processes: attention, retention, production, and motivation. The research suggests that guided participation (participant modeling) is the most effective type of observational learning, especially for treating phobic reactions. |
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Term
| Operant Extinction and Extinction Bursts |
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Definition
| In operant conditioning, extinction refers to teh eliminatin of a previously-reinforced response through the consistent withholding of reinforcement following that response. Operant extinction is usually associated with a temporary increase in the response. |
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Term
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Definition
| An operant technique used to eliminate an undesirable behavior. It involves having the individual correct the consequences of her behavior (restitution) and/or practice corrective behaviors (positive practice). Overcorrection may require constant supervision and/or physical guidance. |
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Term
| Positive and Negative Punishment |
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Definition
| In operant conditionaing, positive punishment is used to decrease a behavior and involves applying a stimulus following the behavior. Negative punishment is also used to decrease a behvior and involves withdrawing a stimulus following the behavior. |
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Term
| Positive and Negative Reinforcement |
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Definition
| In operant conditioning, positive reinforcement is used to increase a behavior and involves applying a stimulus following the behavior. Negative reinforcement is also used to increase a behavior but involves withdrawing a stimulus after the behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| An application of positive reinforcement that involves using a high-frequency behavior as a positive reinforcer for a low-frequency behavior. |
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Term
| Procedural and Declarative Memory |
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Definition
| Long term memory is conceptualized as consisting of procedural and declarative aspects: Procedural memory stores information about how to do things (learning how). Declarative memory mediates the acquisition of facts (learing that or what). It is further subdivided into semantic and episodic memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| An aspect of long-term memory that is responsible for the ability to "remember to remember" (eg. to remember a future appointment). |
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Term
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Definition
| In operant conditioning, punishment refers to a method used to decrease a behavior by applying or withdrawing a stimulus following the behavior. A major disadvantage of punishment is that it suppresses (rather than eliminates) a behavior. |
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Term
| Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) |
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Definition
| Proposes that behavior is a chain of events, where A is the external event to which the individual is exposed; B is the belief the individual has about A; and C is the emotion or behavior that results from B. In other words, an emotional or behavioral response to an external event is due to beliefs about that event rather than to the event itself. According to Ellis, the founder of REBT, the primary cause of neurosis si the continual repetition of certain common irrational beliefs and these beliefs are the appropriate target of therapy. |
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Term
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Definition
| A form of counterconditioning developed by Wolpe to alleviate anxiety reactions by pairing a stimulus that produces anxiety (cs) with a stimulus that produces relaxation or toher incompatible response (US). |
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Term
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Definition
| A form of negative punishment that involves removing a reinforcer (eg. a specific number of tokens or points) following a behavior in order to reduce that behavior. |
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Term
| Satiation vs. Habituation |
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Definition
| Satiation is the condition of being satisfied or gratified with regard to a particular reinforcer. Satiation is a problem wiht continuous reinforcement and with the use of primary (unconditioned) reinforcers. Satiation must be distinguished from habituation, whihc is the process of becoming accustomed (physiologically nonreactive) to a stimulus as the result of prolonged exposure to that stimulus. Habituation may occur when using punishment if the punishment is initially delivered at low intensity and thereafter gradually increased in intensity. |
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Term
| Schedules of Reinforcement |
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Definition
| Continuous and Intermittent. In operant conditioning, continuous reinforcement involves providing reinforcement following each emission of the target response. It is associated with rapid acquisition of a response and a high susceptibility to extinction. Intermittent schedules are schedules that are not continuous. |
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Term
| Skinner's Intermittent Schedules |
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Definition
| Fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio. |
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Term
| Fixed Interval Schedule (FI) |
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Definition
| Skinner's schedule. Involves reinforcing the organism for each predetermined interval of time in which it makes at least one response. |
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Term
| Variable Interval Schedule (VI) |
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Definition
| Involves providing reinforcement after a varying amount of time, wiht the average time interval being predetermined. |
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Term
| Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR) |
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Definition
| Skinner's schedule. Involves providing reinforcement after a predetermined number of responses (eg. after each 10th response). |
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Term
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Definition
| Skinner's. Entails applying the reinforcer after a varying number of responses, with the average number beign predetermined. The VR schedule is associated wiht a high, stable rate of responding and the greatest resistance to extinction. |
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Term
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Definition
| A knowledge structure or framework about a particular topic or process that influences how information and events are interpreted and responded to. |
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Term
| Self-Instructional Training |
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Definition
| A cognitive-behavioral technique in which the individual learns to modify maladaptive thoughts and behaviors through the use of covert self-statements. It was originally developed as a way to help impulsive and hyperactive children slow down theri behaviors and guide themselves through academic and other types of tasks. |
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Term
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Definition
| When people are asked to recall a list of unrelated items immediately after reading the list, the items in the beginning and end of the list are recalled much better than those in the middle. Apparently, this is because items in the beginning of the list have already been rehearsed and stored in long-term memory, while items at the end are still in short-term memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| The method of "successive approximations" involves teaching a new behavior through prompting and reinforcing behaviors that come closer and closer to the target behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| Recall of information tends to be better when teh learner is in teh same emotional state during learning and recall. |
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Term
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Definition
| In operant conditioning, the process by which a behvior does or does not occur due to the presence (or absence) of discriminative stimuli. Positive discriminative stimuli signal that a behavior will be reinforced; negative discriminative stimuli (S-delta stimuli) signal that a behavior witll not be reinforced. |
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Term
| Stimulus Discrimination and Experimental Neurosis |
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Definition
| In classical conditioning, stimulus discrimination training is used to teach an organism to respond with a CR only in the presence of certain stimuli (ie. in the presence of the original CS). sometimes, when discriminations are difficult, the organism will exhibit experimental neurosis. ie. it will exhibit unusual behviors such as restlessness, aggressiveness, or fear. |
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Term
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Definition
| In operant and classical conditioning, stimulus generalization refers to responding with a particular response to similar stimuli. In classical conditioning, it refers to responding to stimuli similar to the CS with CR; in operant conditioning, the term is used to describe respoinding to stimuli similar to the discriminative stimuli with the target behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| A cognitive-behavioral technique used to help individuals cope with stressful and other aversive states by enhancing their coping skills. It includes three stages: cognitive (education); skills acquisition; and application. |
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Term
| Systematic Desensitization (Dismantling Strategy) |
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Definition
| A classical conditioning procedure based on counterconditioning (reciprocal inhibition). It involves pairing hierarchically-arranged anxiety-evoking stimuli with relaxationin order to eliminate the anxiety response. Research using the dismantling strategy suggests that extinction (rather than counterconditioning) is responsible for its effectiveness. |
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Term
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Definition
| A form of negative punishment in which the individual is removed from all opportunities for reinforcement for a prespecified period of time followign a misbehavior in order to decrease teh occurrence of that behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| Thinning refers to the process of reducing the proportion of reinforcements. Fading refers to the gradual removal of prompts. |
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Term
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Definition
| Proposes that a loss of memory (forgetting) is due to the gradual decay of memory traces or engrams over time as the result of disuse. |
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Term
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Definition
| Indicates that moderate levels of arousal are associated with optimal learnign and performance so that the relationship between arousla and learning takes the shape of an inverted U. |
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