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Earth Science Midterm
Eartch Science Midterm
140
Science
Undergraduate 2
03/08/2013

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Term
Atomic Number
Definition
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
Term
Mass Number
Definition
The number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an atom
Term
Element
Definition
a substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by ordinary chemical of physical means
Term
Covalent Bond
Definition
A chemical bond produced by the sharing of electrons
Term
Ionic Bond
Definition
A chemical bond between two oppositely charged ions formed by the transfer of valence electrons from one atom to the other
Term
Isotope
Definition
Varieties of the same element that have different mass numbers; their nuclei contain the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
Term
Mineral
Definition
a naturally occurring, inorganic crystalline material with a unique chemical composition
Term
Name the mineral groups
Definition
Oxygen (O), Silicon (Si), Aluminum (Al), Iron (Fe), Calcium (Ca), Sodium (Na), Postassium (K), Magnesium (Mg) //Silicates and Nonsilicates
Term
What is the basic building block of silicate minerals?
Definition
Silicon and Oxygen
Term
What mineral group is the most abundant in the Earth's crust?
Definition
Silicates
Term
Mineral Luster
Definition
The appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface of a mineral
Term
Streak
Definition
The color of a mineral in powdered form
Term
Hardness
Definition
A measure of the resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching
Term
Density
Definition
Mass per unit of volume, often expressed in grams per cubic cm (g/cm3)
Term
Specific Gravity
Definition
A number representing the ratio of a mineral's weight to the weight of an equal volume of water
Term
Cleavage
Definition
The tendency of a mineral to break along planes of weak bonding
Term
Fracture
Definition
A property of having chemical bonds that are equally, or nearly equal, strong in all directions
Term
What is the least reliable physical property used from the identification of minerals?
Definition
Color
Term
Describe the Mohs Hardness Scale. What do the number designations mean?
Definition
Determines a numerical value of hardness; consists of 10 minerals arranged in order from 1 (softest) to 10 (hardest); compares them to the hardness of some common objects
Term
What is the range of specific gravity of most common rock-forming minerals?
Definition
2-3
Term
Rock
Definition
A consolidated mixture of minerals
Term
Igneous Rock
Definition
A rock formed by the crystallization of molten magma
Term
Metamorphic Rock
Definition
Rocks formed by the alteration of preexisting rock deep within the Earth (but still in the solid state) by heat, pressure, and/or chemically active fluid
Term
Sedimentary Rock
Definition
Rock formed from the weathered products of preexisting rocks that have been transported, deposited, and lithified
Term
Felsic
Definition
The group of igneous rocks composed primarily of feldspar and quartz
Term
Intermediate
Definition
The composition of igneous rocks lying between felsic and mafic
Term
Mafic
Definition
Igneous rocks with a low silica content and a high iron-magnesium content
Term
Ultramafic
Definition
Igneous rocks composed of mainly iron and magnesium-rich minerals
Term
Texture
Definition
The size, shape and distribution of the particles that collectively constitute a rock
Term
Name the common course-grained igneous rocks
Definition
Granite, Diorite, Gabbro
Term
Name the common fine-grained igneous rocks
Definition
Rhyolite, Andesite, Basalt
Term
Partial Melting
Definition
Process by which most igneous rock melts; occurs when only a portion of a solid is melted
Term
Bowens Reaction Series
Definition
A concept proposed by N.L. Bowen that illustrates the relationships between magma and the minerals crystallizing from it during the formation of igneous rocks
Term
Magmatic Differentiation
Definition
The process of generating more than one rock type from a single magma
Term
What controls the texture of an igneous rock?
Definition
It's cooling history
Term
How does magma viscosity relate to its composition and explosive potential?
Definition
Amount of dissolved gas in magma & temp of magma
Term
Detritus
Definition
Solid particles from weathered rocks
Term
Detrital Sedimentary Rock
Definition
Rock formed from the accumulation of material that originated and was transported in the form of solid particles derived from both mechanical and chemical weathering
Term
Lithification
Definition
The process, generally cementation and/or compaction, of converting sediments to solid rock
Term
How are detrital sedimentary rocks classified
Definition
Particle Size
Term
What is the most abundant sedimentary rock?
Definition
Limestone
Term
What conditions cause metamorphism?
Definition
Takes place when preexisting rock is subjected to a physical or chemical environment that is significantly different from that in which its initially formed. In response to these new conditions, the rock gradually changes until a state of equilibrium with the new environment is reached
Term
Mechanical Weathering
Definition
A rock is broken into smaller and smaller pieces, each retaining the characteristics of the original material. The end result is many small pieces from a single large one
Term
Chemical Weathering
Definition
Involves the complex processes that alter the internal structures of minerals by removing and/or adding elements. During this transformation, the original rock decomposes into substances that are stable in the surface environment
Term
How do frost wedging, salt crystal growth, sheeting and biological activity contribute to mechanical weathering?
Definition
They all move rock debris and relentlessly disintegrate these materials
Term
What conditions favor chemical weathering?
Definition
Rain water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and plant decay acids can induce chemical weathering.
Term
Describe the hydrologic cycle
Definition
Evaporation, Precipitaion, Runoff
Term
Alluvium
Definition
Unconsolidated sediment deposited by a stream
Term
Meander
Definition
A loop-like bend in the course of a stream
Term
Cut Bank
Definition
The area of active erosion on the outside of a meander
Term
Point Bar
Definition
A crescent-shaped accumulation of sand and gravel deposited on the inside of a meander
Term
Stream Discharge
Definition
The volume of water flowing past a certain point in a given unit of time. Usually measured in cubic meters per second or cubic feet per second. Determined by multiplying a stream's cross-sectional area by its velocity
Term
What is the most common drainage pattern?
Definition
Dendritic Pattern: irregularly branching tributary streams resembles the branching pattern of a deciduous tree
Term
Water Table
Definition
The upper level of the saturated zone of ground water
Term
Porosity
Definition
The volume of open spaces in rock or soil
Term
Permeability
Definition
A measure of a materials ability to transmit water
Term
Aquifer
Definition
Rock or soil through which groundwater moves easily
Term
Describe the process of Valley Deepening
Definition
When a streams gradient is steep and the channel is well above base level, downcutting is the dominant activity, abrasion caused by bed load sliding and rolling along the bottom, and the hydraulic power of fast-moving water, slowing lowers the streambed. This result is usually a V-shaped valley with steep sides.
Term
Describe the process of Valley Widening
Definition
Once a stream has cut its channel closer to base level,downward erosion becomes less dominant. At this point the stream's channel takes on a meandering pattern, and more of the stream's energy is directed from side to side. The result is a widening of the valley.
Term
Glacial Drift
Definition
An all-embracing term for sediments of glacial origin, no matter how, where, or in what shape they were deposited.
Term
Stratified Drift
Definition
Sediments deposited by glacial meltwater
Term
Till
Definition
Unsorted sediment deposited directly by a glacier
Term
Kame
Definition
A steep-sided hill composed of sand and gravel originating when sediment is collected in openings in stagnant glacial ice
Term
Esker
Definition
Sinuous ridge composed largely of sand and gravel deposited by a stream flowing in a tunnel beneath a glacier near its terminus
Term
Outwash Plain
Definition
A relatively flat, gently sloping pain consisting of materials deposited by meltwater streams in front of the margin of an ice sheet
Term
Ground Moraine
Definition
An undulating layer of till deposited as the ice front retreats
Term
Drumlin
Definition
A streamlined asymmetrical hill composed of glacial till. The steep side of the hill faces the direction from which the ice advanced
Term
Kettle Holes
Definition
Depressions created when blocks of ice became lodged in glacial deposits and subsequently melted
Term
Cirque
Definition
An amphitheater-shaped basin at the head of a glacial valley, produced by frost wedging and plucking
Term
Arete
Definition
A narrow knife-like ridge separating two adjacent glaciated valleys
Term
Horn
Definition
A pyramid-like peak formed by glacial action in 3 or more cirques surrounding a mounting summit
Term
When was the most recent glaciation? When was it at its maximum?
Definition
Ice Age; 18,000
Term
How does glaciation affect sea level?
Definition
The snow that nourishes glaciers ultimately comes from moisture evaporated from the oceans. Therefore, when the ice sheets increased in size, sea level fell and the shoreline moved seaward.
Term
During the most recent glaciation, where was sea level relative to today?
Definition
100 meters lower than today
Term
Desert
Definition
One of the two types of dry climate; the driest of the dry climates
Term
Loess
Definition
Deposits of windblown silt, lacking visible layers, generally buff-colored, and capable of maintaining a nearly vertical cliff.
Term
Steppe
Definition
One of the two types of dry climate. A marginal and more humid variant of the desert that separates it from bordering humid climates.
Term
How much of the Earth's land surface is covered by deserts and steppes/
Definition
30%
Term
What is the most important erosional process in the desert?
Definition
Water
Term
Discuss the Theory of Continental Drift
Definition
A theory that origianlly proposed that the continents are rafted about. It has essentially been replaced by the plate tectonics theory.
Term
What evidence was used to support the Theory of Continental Drift?
Definition
Fossils matched across the seas (Mesosaurus & Glossopteris), rock types and geological features,and ancient climates
Term
Why wasn't the Theory of Continental Drift accepted?
Definition
Not ALL the evidence supported the continental drift hypothesis as he had formulated it
Term
Convergent
Definition
A boundary in which two plates move together, causing one of the slabs of lithosphere to be consumed into the mantle as it descends beneath on an overriding plate
Term
Divergent
Definition
A region where the rigid plates are moving apart, typified by the mid-oceanic ridges
Term
Transform Plate Boundaries
Definition
A boundary in which two plates slide past one another without creating or destroying lithosphere
Term
Lithosphere
Definition
The rigid outer layer of the Earth, including the crust and upper mantle
Term
Tectonice Plate
Definition
A coherent unit of Earth's rigid outer layer that includes crust and upper mantle
Term
Hot Spot
Definition
A concentration of heat in the mantle capable of producing magma, which in turn extrudes onto Earth's Surface. (ex. Hawaiian Islands)
Term
Where is new oceanic crust created?
Definition
Divergent Boundaries
Term
Where is old oceanic crust destroyed?
Definition
Convergent Boundaries
Term
How did the Red Sea form?
Definition
A continental drifting followed by a continental collision
Term
What is the typical rate of seafloor spreading?
Definition
5cm (2in) per year. Roughly the same rate as a fingernail
Term
Subduction
Definition
The process of thrusting oceanic lithosphere into the mantle along a convergent boundary
Term
What is the cause, and the result, of partial melting in a subduction area?
Definition
One plate is pushed downward beneath another plate into the underlying mantle when plates move towards each other
Term
Volcanic Island Arc
Definition
A chain of volcanic islands generally located a few hundred kilometers from a trench where active subduction of one oceanic slab beneath another is occurring
Term
Continental Volcanic Arc
Definition
Mountains formed in part by igneous activity associated with the subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continent
Term
Oceanic crust vs. Continental crust
Definition
Oceanic crust: 4-7 miles thick and mainly consists of heavy rocks like basalt
Continental crust: 19 miles thick and mainly made up of light material like granite
Term
What is the source of energy for plate movements?
Definition
Subduction of cold dense slabs of oceanic lithosphere
Term
Passive Continental Margin
Definition
Margin that consists of a continental shelf, continental slope, and continental rise. They are NOT associated with plate boundaries and therefore experience little volcanism and few earthquakes
Term
Accretionary Wedge
Definition
A large wedge-shaped mass of sediment that accumulates in subduction zones. Here, sediment is scraped from the subducting oceanic plate and accreted to the overriding crustal block
Term
Terrace
Definition
A crustal block bonded by faults, whose geological history is distinct from the histories of adjoining crustal blocks
Term
Elastic Rebound
Definition
The sudden release of stored strain in rocks that results in movement along a fault
Term
Primary Wave
Definition
A type of seismic waves that involves alternating compression and expansion of the material through which it passes
Term
Secondary Waves
Definition
A seismic wave that involves oscillation perpendicular to the direction of propagation
Term
Surface Waves
Definition
Seismic waves that travel along the outer layer of the Earth
Term
How is the Richter Magnitude of an earthquake determined from seismic records?
Definition
Based on the amplitude of the largest seismic Wave (P,S,or surface)
Term
How is the epicenter of an earthquake determined from seismic records?
Definition
Seismographs
Term
Crust
Definition
The very thin outermost layer of the Earth
Term
Mantle
Definition
The 2,900 km (1,800 mile) thick layer of Earth located below the crust
Term
Core
Definition
Located beneath the mantle, it is the innermost layer of the Earth. The core is divided into an outer core and inner core
Term
Asthenosphere
Definition
A subdivision of mantle situated below the lithosphere
Term
Lithosphere
Definition
The rigid outer later of Earth, including the crust and upper mantle
Term
Eruptive styles of a shield volcano.
Definition
More sporadic and pyroclastic; Erupts with thicker and shorter flows
Term
Eruptive styles of a cinder cone
Definition
Single short-lived eruptive event
Term
Eruptive style of a composite cone
Definition
Very persistent eruption activity
Term
Batholith
Definition
A large mass of igneous rock that formed when magma was em-placed at depth, crystallized, and subsequently exposed by erosion
Term
Pluton
Definition
A structure that results from the emplacement and crystallization of magma beneath the surface of the Earth
Term
Dike
Definition
A tabular-shaped intrusive igneous feature that cuts through the surrounding rock
Term
What proportion of magma is made up of dissolved gases?
Definition
1-6% total weight
Term
What are the most common dissolved gases in magma?
Definition
Carbon Dioxide, Nitrogen and Sulfar Dioxide
Term
Normal Fault
Definition
A fault in which the rock above the fault plane has moved down relative to the rock below
Term
Reverse Fault
Definition
A fault in which the material above the fault plane moves up in relation to the movement below
Term
Strike-slip Fault
Definition
A fault along which movement is horizontal
Term
Thrust Fault
Definition
A low angle reverse fault
Term
Anticline
Definition
A fold in sedimentary strata resembling an arc
Term
Sycline
Definition
A linear downfold in sedimentary strata; the opposite of anticline
Term
Dome
Definition
A roughly circular upfolded structure similar to an anticline
Term
What conditions favor folding?
Definition
Small strain rates, higher pressures, higher temperatures at greater depths. (asthenosphere or mesosphere)
Term
What conditions favor faulting?
Definition
Strain rates are large, relatively low temperatures, confining pressures at shallow depths (lithosphere)
Term
Unconformity
Definition
A surface that represents a break in the rock record, caused by erosion or nondeposition
Term
Three types of unconformity
Definition
Angular, Disconformity and Noncomformity
Term
Unconformaity: Angular
Definition
Tilted of folded sedimentary rocks that are overlain by younger, more flat-lying strata
Term
Unconformity: Disconformity
Definition
A type of unconformity in which the beds above and below are parallel
Term
Unconformity: Nonconformity
Definition
An unconformity in which older metamorphic or intrusive igneous rocks are overlain by younger sedimentary strata
Term
Index Fossil
Definition
A fossil that is associated with a particular span of geological time
Term
What is the principle behind radiometric dating?
Definition
Provides a reliable means of calculating the ages of rocks and minerals that contain particular radioactive isotopes
Term
What type of material is most often preserved as fossils?
Definition
Remains of relatively recent organisms (teeth, bones, shells)
Term
What conditions favor preservation?
Definition
Rapid burial and possession of hard parts
Term
PreCambrian
Definition
All geological time prior to the Paleozoic era
Term
The age of the Earth accepted by most scientists is 4.6 Billion years.
Definition
True
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