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DNA
from DNA to proteins
90
Biology
9th Grade
03/06/2013

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Term
When was it discovered that chromosomes were made from DNA and protein?
Definition
in the 1940s
Term
When did Griffith demonstrate transformation and how did he do it?
Definition
1928 and harmless K bacteria were transformed to virulent S bacteria
Term
When did Oswald Avery demonstrate that DNA was responsible for transformation and how did he do it?
Definition
1944 and he showed that transformation wasn't affected by protein-destroying enzymes but was stopped by DNA-destroying enzymes
Term
When did Hershey and Chase show that DNA is genetic material and how?
Definition
They used Tsub2 phages that were radioactively labeled; super2P was found in the DNA of the phages and super35S was found in the protein coat
Term
What is a bacteriophage?
Definition
a virus that infects bacteria
Term
What is DNA composed of?
Definition
deoxyribose (a 5 carbon sugar), a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base
Term
Which bases are purines (double ring)?
Definition
adenine and guanine
Term
Which bases are pyrimidines (single ring)?
Definition
thymine and cytosine
Term
Which bases bond to each other and a deoxyribose sugar?
Definition
adenine double bonds to thymine and guanine triple bonds to cytosine
Term
What does the order of nucleotides control?
Definition
the production of all proteins of an organism
Term
Do the two strands of DNA go in the same or opposite directions (what is/are it/they called)?
Definition
opposite; 5' and 3'
Term
What is replication?
Definition
DNA makes DNA
Term
What type of replication leads to the daughter DNA having one new and one old strand?
Definition
semiconservative replication
Term
What is transcription?
Definition
DNA makes RNA
Term
What is translation?
Definition
RNA makes protein
Term
What are the main differences between DNA and RNA?
Definition
RNA has a single strand of nucleotides; uracil replaces thymine; sugar is simply ribose
Term
What do helicases do in replication?
Definition
break the hydrogen bonds that bond complimentary bases
Term
What do single-strand binding proteins do in replication?
Definition
help keep the now-separated strands apart
Term
What do topoismerases do in replication?
Definition
untangle snarls
Term
what does DNA polymerase do?
Definition
add nucleotides to exposed nucleotides according to base pairing rules and bonds sugars/phosphates
Term
How many directions does DNA polymerase work in?
Definition
only one
Term
Which direction do new strands of DNA grow in during replication?
Definition
5' to 3'
Term
Does DNA polymerase have a proofreading function?
Definition
yes
Term
What does ligase do?
Definition
attach the fragments
Term
What is a replication fork?
Definition
the site at which DNA separates and replication occurs
Term
How many base pairs can be copied in a human in 6 hours?
Definition
about 3 billion
Term
Describe synthesis on the leading strand during replication.
Definition
continuous in the 5' to 3' direction
Term
Describe synthesis on the lagging strand during replication.
Definition
grows in overall 3' to 5' direction, adding short segments called Okazaki fragments that individually grow in the 5' to 3' direction, the enzyme ligase joins fragments to the growing strand
Term
How many errors go uncorrected during replication and what are they called?
Definition
about 1 in a billion; mutations
Term
What is a gene?
Definition
a piece of DNA that codes for a protein
Term
What are introns and exons (for purposes of replication)?
Definition
noncoding segments in eukaryotic DNA; coding segments
Term
What is a multigene family?
Definition
a gene that exists in multiple copies (two codes make the same protein)
Term
What is a transposon?
Definition
a gene that can move from one chromosomal location to another
Term
What is the p53 gene?
Definition
it acts as a tumor suppressor in normal cells
Term
How many types of cancer have been found to have mutated p53?
Definition
51
Term
Where is DNA found?
Definition
nucleus
Term
Where does protein synthesis occur?
Definition
ribosomes in cytosol
Term
What is a code?
Definition
a system of symbols used to store information
Term
What is an example of a code?
Definition
written language
Term
How many "words" are necessary for DNA coding?
Definition
20
Term
How many nucleotides code for one amino acid?
Definition
three
Term
How many triplets are possible in DNA code?
Definition
64
Term
What is it called when two triplets code for the same thing?
Definition
synonyms
Term
Who "cracked the genetic code"? What did he do?
Definition
Marshall Nirenberg; added all-uracil to 20 test tubes, one for each amino acid to see what UUU coded for (the rest of the codes followed)
Term
How do ribosomes make proteins?
Definition
using instructions from foreign RNA
Term
What is the code for phenylalanine?
Definition
UUU
Term
What is a codon?
Definition
an mRNA triplet
Term
What are the two functions of mRNA?
Definition
to carry code to ribosomes; direct formation of the amino acid sequence
Term
What is the function of tRNA?
Definition
pick up amino acids and carry them to a ribosome
Term
What is an anticodon?
Definition
a tRNA triplet
Term
What is the function of rRNA?
Definition
combine with proteins to form ribosomes
Term
What is the first stage of transcription called?
Definition
initiation
Term
What happens during transcription's initiation?
Definition
RNA polymerase binds to DNA at the promoter region and DNA unwinds, exposing the coding strand
Term
What is the second stage of transcription called?
Definition
Elongation
Term
What happens during transcription's elongation?
Definition
RNA polymerase moves along the DNA coding strand, synthesizing an RNA strand
Term
What is the third stage of transcription called?
Definition
Termination
Term
What happens during transcription's termination?
Definition
RNA polymerase reaches the end of the gene or coding region. primary RNA transcript is released and the RNA polymerase falls off
Term
What does methyl-guanine or mG do?
Definition
protects mRNA from enzymes, helps mRNA attach to ribosomes
Term
What is a Poly-A tail and what does it do?
Definition
100-200 adenine nucleotides; protects and helps transport mRNA through the nuclear envelope
Term
What is splicing?
Definition
parts of the primary transcript are cut out
Term
What happens to introns during splicing? Exons?
Definition
they are removed; they remain
Term
How is tRNA formed?
Definition
primary transcript is spliced and tRNA is folded into a cloverleaf
Term
Where does the formation of rRNA occur and how?
Definition
nucleolus; primary rRNA transcript is sliced and modified
Term
What triggers tRNA charging? When does tRNA charging happen?
Definition
a tRNA charging enzyme recognizes one of the 20 amino acids and its specific tRNA; before translation
Term
What happens during tRNA charging?
Definition
the enzyme binds the amino acid and ATP, the ATP loses 2 PO4's, and the AMP joins the enzyme; the enzyme bonds to tRNA which displaces the AMP; the enzyme releases charged tRNA
Term
What is a ribosome bonding site?
Definition
where mRNA and tRNA join
Term
What is a P site's function?
Definition
to hold the tRNA carrying a growing polypeptide chain
Term
What is an A site's function?
Definition
to hold the tRNA with the newest amino acid to be added
Term
What is in translation's initiation?
Definition
the mG cap of RNA attaches to the ribosome, followed by several nucleotides that thread mRNA into ther ribosome, a start codon (AUG) is at the P site, and the methionine-charged tRNA pairs with AUG at the P site
Term
What is in translation's elongation?
Definition
the mRNA at the A site pairs with the charged tRNA, a peptide bond joins amino acids at the P and A sites (the polypeptide chain is transferred from the P site to the A site), the tRNA at the P site leaves, and the P site moves over one codon on the mRNA and the remaining tRNA goes to the P site from the A site
Term
What is in translation's termination?
Definition
the stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA) reaches the A site & no anticodon matches with it, so the polypeptide is released and the ribosome separates
Term
What is a reading frame?
Definition
The grouping of bases into codons
Term
Describe gene regulation in prokaryotes.
Definition
genes are only expressed when their products are needed, saving energy and resources
Term
What is an operon?
Definition
a cluster of genes that codes for proteins with related functions
Term
What is lac operon?
Definition
contains genes needed for lactose metabolism in E. coli
Term
What is a promoter region?
Definition
the RNA polymerase binding site that signals the beginning of a gene
Term
What are structural genes?
Definition
code for proteins
Term
What is an operator region?
Definition
it acts as a switch to control RNA polymerase's access to structural genes
Term
When are operons turned off?
Definition
when a repressor binds to the operator
Term
When are operons (particularly Lac Operon) turned on and what happens?
Definition
when an inducer binds to the repressor and changes its shape - in lac operon, the inducer is allolactose - and the repressor falls off of the operator
Term
How are genes regulated in eukaryotes?
Definition
genes with related functions are scattered and are not in operons; instead, entire cells are dedicated to specific functions
Term
In what type of chromosome can you see transcription and what is the specific area called?
Definition
polytene; chromosome puff, where DNA loops out from the chromosome
Term
What are transcription factors?
Definition
proteins that allow RNA polymerase to bind to a gene
Term
What is an enhancer in transcription?
Definition
a region of DnA to which transcription factors bind and may be distant from the gene controlled
Term
What is a mutagen?
Definition
an environmental agent that causes mutations
Term
What is a carcinogen?
Definition
cancer causing agent
Term
What is cancer?
Definition
abnormal cell growth
Term
What is cancer caused by?
Definition
mutations in genes that regulate cell growth
Term
What is metastasis?
Definition
spread of malignant cells beyond their original site
Term
What is an oncogene?
Definition
a gene that when mutated can cause cancer
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