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Developmental Psych
exam 1
58
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
03/19/2008

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
Environmental Learning Theories
Definition
process of development is reduced to individual learning moments. Specific behaviors can be traced to the moment they are learned. Most extreme = behaviorists e.g. Skinner, who believed in direct conditioning.
Term
Social-cognitive theory  
Definition
more modern approach to ELT. Albert Bandura. Children learn through observations, selective imitation and are sensitive to consequences in addition to direct reinforcement
Term
Freud's Theory
Definition
children pass through biologically determined stages, each of which can produce certain long-term personality problems. Development=stages in which libidinal energy is manifested in different zones
Term
Freud's Stages
Definition
Oral Stage (birth-2 years); Anal Stage (2.5 – 3 years); Phallic (3.5-6 years); Latency (6 years- puberty); Genital Stage (Puberty – Adulthood)
Term
Piaget's Theory
Definition
Stage theory. Mechanisms of Change: Assimilation, Accommodation. Children of different ages think in different ways. Asserts a continuity and a discontinuity.
Term
Piaget's Stages
Definition
Sensory-Motor Stage (Birth-18 months); Preoperational (18 months-6 years); Concrete Operations (6 years-11 years); Formal Operations (11 years-Adulthood)
Term
Standard Procedure
Definition
records phenomena under conditions controlled by researchers. Advantages: Allows assessment of subtle phenomena. Conduct experiments. Control variables. Allows study of infrequent behavior. Aids replication. Disadvantages: external validity. Cooperation.
Term
Naturalistic Study
Definition
phenomena recorded in natural setting. Researcher should be unknown to subject. Advantages: Suited to new discovery of certain variables. Looking at complex social interactions. Motivation. Disadvantages: Precludes a true experiment. No casual influences. Infrequent behavior.
Term
Intervention treatment
Definition
whether or not a child's behavior can be changed. Advantages: pre-post design control. Maleability. Disadvantage: may not be representative of how normal change happens.
Term
Assessment Treatment
Definition
"wastebasket category": studies where you try to learn what children's behaviors are naturally like. Advantages: good for assessments. Disadvantages: no malleability. Learn nothing about mechanisms of change.
Term
Longitudinal Age Control
Definition
a research design in which data are gathered about the same group of children as they grow older over an extended period of time. Advantages: best way to determine stability over time. Allows us to specify environment and its effects. Avoid cohort/generational problem. Disadvantage: Difficult to conduct. Selective drop-out.
Term
Cross Sectional Age Control
Definition
A research design in which children of various ages are studied at same time. Disadvantages: Cohort/generational problem. Test people repeatedly and it will affect/influence behavior.
Term
Cohort Generational Problem
Definition
differences in nutrition/environment due to growing up in different time/social environment.
Term
The Dutch Famine Birth Cohort Study
Definition
during WWII, Nazis withheld food and as a result, there was mass starvation. Study followed babies born when the famine occurred in third trimester of pre-natal development. A follow-up at age 18 generally showed that there were no long-term effects on intelligence. Children bounce back.
Term
why do humans develop so slowly?
Definition
we need to learn a lot of things before adulthood, cultural knowledge ; protects from short-term environmental adversity (food shortage); women's pelvis is small due to bipedality, so the infant is very small and needs more time to grow.
Term
Held and Hein (1963)
Definition
showed that kittens that were prevented from actively exploring the visual world, even though they received the same visual stimulation as their normal counterparts, failed to show normal behaviour in many visually guided tasks.
Term
Abilities of newborns
Definition
can discriminate between small numbers. Can reproduce facial gestures, finger protrusion. Prefer mother's voice to not. (prefer mother's voice as it sounded in womb, which indicates that babies can hear prenatally). Thus, newborns are pre-organized to process information in particular ways, and are not 'tabula rosa' necessarily.
Term
gradual gene expression
Definition
may sometimes be confused for something gained by experience. For example, facial hair is coded genetically but doesn't show until adulthood but is not gained by experience.
Term
Personality V Temperament
Definition

personality: the unique pattern of temperament, emotions, interests and intellectual abilities that a child develops as the child's innate propensities and capabilities are shaped by his or her social interactions with kin and community.

temperament: term for individual modes of repsonding to environment that appear to be consisten across situations and stable over time. 

Term
Elicitation
Definition
newborns have a certain set of behaviors in response to certain stimuli. may be due to mirror neurons
Term
Bushnell et al (1989)
Definition
infants look longer at mother's face than a stranger's
Term
Kagan
Definition
high reactive babies at 4 months (high in motoric, crying) in teenage years (14-17) find related attributes. Measured inhibition and exuberance. For example, at 3 years a child that is shy, withdrawn and fearful will shun danger and be low in impulsivity at 18.
Term
Fox et al (2005)
Definition
measured DNA at 4 years, measured family environment. Stability of inhibition best predicted by short-form and low levels of emotional support.
Term
Block
Definition
low in ego control at age 4 (unable to delay gratification, over-reacts to minor frustration) show correlation to drug use at 14
Term
attachment
Definition
major social achievement of infancy. Foundation for social relationships with other people.
Term
John Bowlby
Definition

theory: enduring affectional bond between child and mother serves adaptive function of preserving proximity to mother in order to protect infant. Proposed a critical period for attachment.

Term
monotropy
Definition
the idea that a human infant would develop only one special attachment to its mother, which was completely different from the other relationships which it developed, and that it would cause the child great distress and lasting damage if it was broken. Maternal deprivation.
Term
Qualities of Attachment
Definition

From Strange Situation Procedure.

Anxious Avoidant- avoid mother on re-entry.

Secure- wants to be near mother.

Anxious resistant- wants to be near but is angry at mother.

Disorganized- contradictory, confused behavior, freezing, undirected movements.

Term
Smile Selectivity
Definition
first smile at high contrast dots, then effigies of faces, then smiling faces only.
Term
Van dem Boom (1990)
Definition
found that experimental manipulation of the mother's sensitive responsiveness dramatically altered attachment outcomes.
Term
Tizard (1989)
Definition

Enriched orphanage environment.

The aim of Hodges and Tizard's study was to examine the effect of institutional upbringing on later attachments.

 

They found that children who are deprived of close and lasting attachments to adults in their first years of life can make such attachments later, although this does depend on the adults concerned and how much they nurture such attachments.

 

Rather than there being a critical period it is possible to argue that there is a sensitive period for the development of behaviour.

Term
Rutter et al (1998)
Definition

studied Romanian orphans that had been raised since birth in institutions where nurses were strongly discouraged forming relationship with the children.

 

10 male orphans who were adopted around 2 years of age were placed with families in the UK. Rutter found that all orphans developed emotional problems later in life and that they had difficulties forming relationships with their peers.

Term
what methods allow us to learn about infant's experience?
Definition
conditioning, habituation, emotional response, selective looking
Term
conditioning
Definition
  • babies are reinforced for producing a particular response in the presence of particular stimuli
  • see if they will generalize between stimuli
  • for newborn, sucking is a response that shows interest in a certain stimuli
Term
habituation
Definition
  • presenting a stimulus repeatedly over time. with repeated presentations, responses diminish
  • if no recovery of response at new stimulus, baby can't tell new from old stimulus
  • categorical habituation is a variation of this
    • present categories rather than same. new=different from original category
Term
Emotional Responses
Definition
  • distress method (visual cliff e.g. for depth discrimination)
  • pre-existing emotional responses
  • looming stimuli (gaze aversion, defensive reaction, opening of mouth, startle blink)
Term
Selective Looking
Definition
  • babies contol how long they look at things
  • their looking is selective. looking times.
Term
preference for faces
Definition
babies look longer at faces and smile at faces later in development
Term
principle of hierarchical integration
Definition
skills typically develop seperately and independently but are later integrated into more complex skills
Term
brain development of infants
Definition
infants are born with between 100 and 200 billion neurons. after birth, brain prunes down neurons in response to the kinds of stimuli that are observed. later in life, no new neurons are created but a network between existing neurons is formed.
Term
do faces attract babies because of a specific arrangement of features? or is it the complexity?
Definition

newborns look longer at face stimuli than scrambled features face stimuli.

 

however, turati's study did not support this. he concluded that babies look longer at stimuli with more "top" elements 

Term
Turati et al
Definition
Babies prefer schematic faces with more 'top element's and not necessarily schematic faces that more closely resemble faces
Term
Do babies use internal facial features to discriminate between stranger and non-stranger?
Definition
Turati showed babies pictures of women with and without internal and external facial features. babies did not remember internal features of face. responded most to changed external contour.
Term
Babies vision and perception
Definition

at 4 months babies can discriminate between men and women

 

by 5-7 months, babies shown happy/sad face will show recovery when switched

 

babies had difficulty grouping toothy/non-toothy smiles. confused toothy smiles with anger. 

Term
Joint Visual Attention
Definition

direction of gaze is important in human interactions. you look where someone else is looking.

 

develops by 10 months. by 9-15 months, babies use direction of gaze and pointing more.

 

at 5 months, smile less at non eye to eye contact. 

Term
Object Concept Stage 1
Definition

Babies will look where an object was, but then look away. Object doesn't have independent existence once it is out of sight

 

Age: 0-4 months 

Term
Object Concept Stage 2
Definition

children become better at anticipating/extrapolating trajectory of object. Succeed in grasping a partially visible object. Babies will not uncover covered object.

 

(the lack of uncovering is not a motoric limitation. auditory stimulation is not enough to make them uncover, nor are tactile (touch) cues. babies need visual contact with object)

 

Age: 4-8 months 

Term
Object Concept Stage 3
Definition

at 8 months, babies will uncover a hidden object.  but continue to make A not B error. 

 

Age: 8-12 Months 

Term
Object Concept Stage 4
Definition

Unseen displacements baffle a child. A not B mastered.


Age: 12-18 Months

Term
Object Concept Stage 5
Definition

Mastery of object permanence

 

Age: >18 

Term
Hearing in Infants
Definition

Infants can hear prenatally (prefer sound of mother's voice as it was in womb to mother's voice)

 

Develop sound localization by age 1 

Term
Attentional Measures in babies
Definition
Babies look longer at interesting, or 'impossible events' which may indicate surprise
Term
Baillargeon
Definition

Babies stare longer at impossible events. 

 

In the habituation event the screen is unimpeded and rotates 180 degrees. In possible event, box stands in way of screen and prevents it from rotating full distance. In impossible event, screen passes right through box.

Term
Diamond (1991)
Definition

 showed that babies have limited memory tend to repeat same movements with A not B error

 

varied time between moment of switching an object between location A and location B and the moment when children were allowed to look for the hidden object.  

 

younger infants are capable of representing objects they cannot see but they quickly forget and become confused 

 

 

Term
A not B Error
Definition

when a baby is allowed to uncover hidden object, first in location A.

 

then object is clearly moved to location B. babies in lower stages will search again in location A.

 

Piaget's experiment 

Term
Ahmed and Ruffman (1998)
Definition

determined that delay leads to A not B error.

 

all 3 delays lead to babies staring longer at impossible event (object supposed to be in location B, it is in location A) even though they would have looked there anyway in same circumstances (A not B error) had they been allowed to manually search for it. 

 

possible explanations:

neuroscience- one ventral path, one dorsal path

early sensitivity to impossible events over all else 

 

Term
Chomsky
Definition
saw child's task of learning language as impossible. children must have biological pre disposition to learning language. 
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