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Cruise USA 220 Final Exam
Cruise USA 220 Final Exam
190
Psychology
Undergraduate 3
04/22/2014

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term

Quasi-experimental Design

Definition
A research design in which an experimental procedure is applied, but all extraneous varibles are not controlled.

*typically lacking random assignment.
Term

Design Components

Definition
Structures and procedures used in constructing research designs.
Term

Causal inferences are made by ruling out rival hypothesis

Definition

- identification and study of plausible threats to internal validity

 

- control by design

*additional pretests time points

*additional control groups

 

-coherent pattern matching

*making a complex prediction that few rival hypotheses can explain.

Term

Identification and study of plausible threats to internal validity

Definition
This principle involves identifying plausible rival explanations and then probing and investigating them to determine how likely it is that they can explain the covariation between the treatment and the outcome.
Term

Control by design

Definition
This principle involves adding design elements, such as pretests time points or additional control groups, to either eliminate a rival explanation or obtain evidence about the plausibility of the rival explanation.
Term

Coherent pattern matching

Definition
This principle can be used when a complex prediction can be made about a causal hypothesis, and there are few, if any rival explantions that would make the same prediction. If the complex prediction is supported by the data, most rival explanations are eliminated. The more complex the prediction, the less likely it is that a rival explanation can explain the prediction and the more likely that the independent varible is producing the effect.
Term

The prisoners in the two jails were not ramdomly assigned.

Definition
John wanted to compare the therapeutic effect of community service versus standard incarceration in treating prisoners so he randomly assigned the prisioners in one jail to community service and the prisioners in another jail to standard incarceration. This represents a quasi-experimental design because
Term

Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design

Definition

A quasi-experimental design in which the results obtained from nonequivalent experimental and control groups are compared.

*The most common quasi-experimental design!

-includes both an experimental and control group

*participants are not randomly assigned to groups

-Pre-Test important to determine equivalence of groups

*large difference between groups on pre-test may indicate selection  bias. -Threats frequently reveal themselves in the outcome.

Term

Summary of threats to internal validity for quasi-experimental designs.

Definition

Nonequivalent comparison group design: history, maturation,instrumentation, testing, regression artifact, attrition.

Interupted Time-Series design: maturation,instrumentation, testing, regression artifact

Regression Discontinuity: history, maturation,instrumentation, testing, regression artifact, attrition, selection.

Term

Non-equivalent Comparison Group Design

Definition

This design appears similar to the pretest-postest control group design. However, there is one important difference that makes one a strong experimental design and the other a quasi-expermental design. In the between-participants pretest-posttest control group design, the participants as randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups, wheras in the nonequivalent comparison group design they are not.


**The absence of random assignment is what makes the nonequivalent control group design a quasi-experimental design.

Term

Selection and additive/interaction Threats to the Internal Validity of the Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design.

Definition
selction bias, selection-attrition bias, selection maturation bias, selection-instrumentation bias, selection-regression bias, and selection history bias.
Term

Selection Bias

Definition
Because groups are non equivalent, there will always be a potential selection bias. However the pretest allows the exploration of the possible size and direction of the bias on any variables measured at pre-testing.
Term

Selection-attrition Bias

Definition
The pretest allows examination of the nature of attrition to see if there is a difference between those that drop out or do not complete the experiment and those that do.
Term

Selection-maturation bias

Definition
This might exist if one group of participants becomes more experienced, tired, or bored than those in the other group.
Term

Selection-instrumentation bias

Definition
This might exist if the nonequivalent groups of participants start at different points on the pretests, particularly if the measuring instrument does not have equal intervals.
Term

Selection-regression bias

Definition
This might exist if the two groups are from different populations, such as the experimental treatment group from a population of individuals with a reading disability and the comparison group from a population of individuals without a reading disability.
Term

Selection-history bias

Definition
This might exist if an event occuring between the pretest and posttest affects one group more than the other group.
Term

Outcomes with rival Hypotheses

Definition

-Increasing treatment and control groups.

-Experimental group higher control than control
 group at pretest effect

-Experimental group lower than control group at
  pretest effect.

-Crossever effect

Term

Increasing treatment and control groups

Definition

-greater increase in treatment condition.

-could be caused by a number of rival hypotheses

*selection-maturation

*selection history


an outcome in which the experimental and the control groups differ at pretesting and both increase from pre to post testing, but the experimental group increases at a faster rate.

Term

Experimental group higher than control group at pretest effect

Definition

-no change in control group

-treatment condition starts higher and increases -rival hypotheses

* selection-history

 

An outcome in which the experimental group performs better than the control group at pretesting, and only the experimental group's scores change from pretesting to postesting.

Term

Experimental group lower than control group at pretest effect

Definition

 - no change in control group

- treatment condition starts lower and increases

- rival hypotheses

* selection-regression

 

An outcome in which the control group performs better than the experimental group at pretesting but only the experimental group improves from pre to post testing.

Term

Crossover effect

Definition

-treatment group scores significantly lower then the control group at
  pretest

-significantly higher at posttest

-no change in control group

-rival hypotheses unlikely with this type of result.

 

An outcome in which the control group performs better at pretesting but the experimental group performs better at posttesting.

Term

Ruling out threats to the Nonequivalent Comparison Group

Definition

*Matching

-equates the groups on important varibles

-example: Head start programs can be matched on income,
 intelligence, and parental involvement

-selection-regression effects may occur when using extreme
 groups.

*Statistical control techniques

-ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance)

Term

Causal Inference form Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design

Definition

* To increase internal validity

-do not let participants self-select to groups

*self-selection increases bias

-minimize pretest differences in groups

*matching

*ANCOVA during data analysis

Term

Look at the results to see what rival hypotheses could have produced such results and then collect data to see if they did produce the results.

Definition
In a nonequivalent control group design there is the possibility of a rival hypothesis competing with the IV in explaining the results. To rule out that possibility I would _______
Term

Selection-Maturation effect

Definition
Participants in one group experience a different rate of maturation than participants in another group.
Term

Selction-History effect

Definition
An extraneous event occuring between pretest and posttest influences participants in one group differently than participants in another group.
Term

Selection-Instrumentation effect

Definition
Participants' scores in one group are affected by the process of measurement differently than participants' in another group.
Term

Selection-Attrition effect

Definition
Participants that drop out of one group are dissimilar to those in another group.
Term

Selection-regression effect

Definition
Participants in one group display a different rate of regression to the mean than participant in another group.
Term

Interrupted Time-Series Design

Definition

A quasi-experimental design in which a treatment effect is assed by comparing the pattern of pretest and posttest scores of a single group of research participants.

-looking for discontinuity in the series of dependent measures

-Use of multiple pretest and posttest measurements demonstrates reliability of effect

-Visual inspection of pre and post test measures very important to determine treatment effect

-Improvement over one-group pretest posttest design

*Primary weakness: no control of history effects.

Term

Regression Discontinuity Design

Definition
A design that assigns participants to groups based on their scores on an assignment variable and assesses the effect of a treatment by looking for a discontinuity in the groups regression lines.
Term

Characteristics of the Regression Continuity Design

Definition

-all individuals are pretested

-individuals who score above some cutoff score
  receieve the
 treatment

-all individuals are posttested

-discontinuity in the regression line indicates a
  treatment effect
.

Term

Requirements of the Regression Discontinuity Design

Definition

*Assignment to comparison groups must be based only on the cutoff scores.

*The assignment variable must be atleast an ordinal variable, and it is best if it is a continuous varible. It cannot be a nominal variable sech as sex, ethnicity,religious preference, etc..
*The cutoff score ideally should be located at the mean of the distribtuion of scores. The closer the cutoff score is to the extremes, the lower the statistical power of the design.

*Assignment to the comparison group must be under the control of the experimenter to avoid a selection bias. This requirement: rules out retrospective uses of the design.

*The relationship between the assignment and outcome variables (whether it is linear, curvilinear, etc) must be known to avoid a biased assessment of the treatment effect.

*All participants must be from the sam population. With respect to the regression discontinuity design, this means that it must have been possible for all participants to receive the treatment condition. This means that the design is not appropriate, for example, if the experimental participants are selected from one school and control participants from another.

Term

Possible Threats to the Discontinuity Design

Definition

* Attrition possible but unlikely threat

 

* Contemporaneous history effect -
   - This is possible but not plausable

 

*This is the more powerful of the quasi-experimental designs

Term

Assignment Measure

Definition
Measure used to assign participants to experimental and control groups. Those with scores below the cut off score are assigned to one group and those with scores above the cut off are assigned to the other group.
Term

Cohort Design

Definition

*Used where everyone takes the treatment and there is regular turnover.


*Cohort

- groups that follow one another


*Reason can use cohorts

- Can often identify cohorts that have not received the treatment

- Frequently can assume that contiguous cohorts differ only in minor ways

-Often possible to use archival records to obtain data on control cohorts

Term

Cross-Lagged Panel Design

Definition

When used:

-When causality exists in both directions

-When causality occurs over time

-Determines preponderant causal pattern

*Auto-correlations-measure stability

*Synchronous correlations

   - measure stationary

*Cross lag correlations

Term

Cohort Design

Definition
If I wanted to determine if having prisoners do community service as their punishment for minor crimes was effective and had to treat all prisoners the same way or have all of them do community service, I would probably have to use a ______ design
Term

Regression-discontinuity design

Definition
If I wanted to test the effect of giving a bonus to everyone in an insurance company who sold more than 10 million dollars worth of insurance in a given year, I probably have to use a ________design
Term

cross-lagged panel design

Definition
If I wanted to determine which of two variables was nonequivalent control group design I would use a _____design
Term

The ability of the design to control for potential threats to internal validity.

Definition
The primary difference between a quasi-experimental design and a randomized experimental design is _____
Term

Selection

Definition
The primary threat to internal validity in the nonequivalent comparison group design is some form of _______ effect.
Term

A crossover effect

Definition
The outcome from a nonequivalent comparison group design that gives us the most confidence that the treatment produced the observed effect is ____.
Term

As a result of the multiple pretests and posttests.

Definition
Most of the threats to internal validity are ruled out in the interrupted time-series design ___
Term

Regression Discontinuity Design

Definition
A school superintendent wants to decrease the amount of truancy that exists in her school system. She assigns all those students who have missed coming to school an average of twice every week for the past year to participate in a program designed to make school more enjoyable and rewarding. The students with an average of less than twice a week will serve as controls. To test the effectiveness of this program she would probably use the ________ design.
Term

Single Case Research Designs

Definition

Research design in which a single participant or a single group of individuals is used to investigate the influence of a treatment condition.

-use only one participant or one group of participants

-no random assignment and no control group
-single participant used most frequently 

 History of Single case designs

-not case studies

-research in psychology began with single case designs

* Pavlov, Ebbinghaus, Skinner, Fisher's introduction of ANOVA

Term

Origin of Single Case Design

Definition

Single-Case designs grew out of behaviorism

*assumption of behaviorism

-behavior is a product of behavioral principles

-Respondent responses

-elicited response

-Operant responses-emitted response

*Same principles operate in all organisms.

*single-case designs became more acceptable with the
  growth in research in behavior therapy.

Term

History of Psychotherapy Research

Definition

*Chronology of events :  - Initially used the case study

- Eysenck's attack revealed that % of cases spontaneously remitting equal
   to that of those treated with psychotherapy

- Tried multiparticipant designs but they did not prove that psychotherapy
   worked

- Moved to process research with no success

- Advocated a return to single-case research but did not have the
   appropriate methodology

- The growth of behavior therapy brought in the use of single-case
   experimental designs.

Term

Single-Case Designs

Definition

Research design in which a single participant or a single group of individuals is used to investigate the influence of a treatment condition.


Time-series designs

-with multiple data points before and after treatment is introduced

   *Comparison responses are the pretreatment responses
   *It is experimental because a treatment is introjected.

-does not eliminate the history effect

-assessment of a treatment effect is based on the assumption that the pattern of pretreatment
 responses would continue in the absence of the treatment.

Term

Single Case Designs

Definition

ABA

ABBA

Interaction Design

Multiple Baseline Design

Changing Criterion Design

Term

ABA Design

Definition

A single-case design in which the response to the treatment condition is compared to baseline responses recorded before and after treatment.

Baseline (A) - Treatment(B) - Baseline(A)


*demonstration of treatment effectiveness requires return to baseline.

Term

Baseline

Definition

Baseline (A)

The target behavior of the participant in its naturally occurring state prior to presentation of the treatment condition.

Term

Treatment

Definition

Treatment (B)

Recordings of behavior after the treatment has been introduced.

Term

Reversal

Definition

Change of behavior back to baseline level after withdrawal of treatment.

*The crucial element for demonstrating that the experimental treatment condition, and not some other extraneous variable, produced the change observed during phase B of the experiment.

Term

ABA Example

Definition

9 yr old exhibiting disruptive behavior.

A-Baseline % time child spent on academic assignments, baseline recorded until DV stabilized.

B-treatment: *points earned if no distraction occurred during given time interval, points could be exchanged for model of his choice.

A-return to baseline: when child had completed three successive ten-minute distraction free sessions, the reinforcement of being able to earn points was withdrawn.

Term

Problems with ABA Designs

Definition

1. ending on baseline not acceptable from therapist point of view because you are ending with a denial of treatment - solution ABBA design


2. some DVs may not revert to baseline when treatment is withdrawn due to carryover. - solution multiple baseline design


3. withdrawal versus reversal: reversal design- design in which the treatment condition is applied to an alternative but incompatible behavior so that a reversal in behavior is produced.

Term

ABBA Design

Definition

Extension of the ABA design to include reintroduction of the treatment condition.


- return to treatment condition after second baseline condition

- should see a return of DV to treatment levels.

Term

Withdrawal

Definition
Removal of the treatment condition
Term

Reversal Design

Definition
A design in which the treatment condition is applied to an alternative but incompatible behavior so that a reversal in behavior is produced.
Term

A-B-A

Definition
If you cannot get a reversal to baseline when the treatment condition is removed, you cannot draw any causal conclusion from the ____ design.
Term

Interaction Design

Definition

Single-Case Design used to identify interaction effects.


-Tests the combined effects of two treatments


-Must change only one treatment at a time -Must use both sequences to test the combined influence over the effect of just one variable and to ensure that ceiling effect does not exist with one variable.

Term

Disadvantages of the Interaction Design

*test question

Definition

- two participants' may be required


- interaction effect can be demonstrated only if each variable
  does not cause a maximum increment in performance.

Term

Interaction effect in single case research

Definition
The combined influence of two or more independent variables.
Term

Multiple Baseline Design

Definition

A single-case design in which the treatment condition is successively administered to several target participants, target outcomes (DVs), or target settings.

-alternative to ABA or ABAB when history threat may be
  suspected

-no withdrawal or reversal involved

   *requires independence of behaviors to demonstrate an
     effect.

Term

Interdependence

Definition
Violation of design assumption in which changing one target (participation, outcome, or setting) produces changes in the remaining targets.
Term

Multiple Baseline Example

Definition
Van Houten, Van Houten, & Malenfant 2007. -tested the effectiveness of a program designed to increase helmet use by middle school students when riding their bicycles. -three schools were targeted, and baseline helmet use data were gathered at each school. -the treatment program was introduced at one school at a time. -increases in correct helmet use occurred when the helmet program was introduced at each school. -when the campaign was introduced at the 2nd and 3rd schools, helmet use increased, but did not change at the schools still at baseline. -this fingerprint or pattern of change provided evidence of the causal efficacy of the helmet advocacy program on helmet use by students.
Term

Changing Criterion Design

Definition

A single-case design in which a participant's behavior is gradually shaped by changing the criterion for success during successive treatment periods.


Design:

1. baseline data taken on a single behavior

2. treatment introduced with a criterion level of performance that needs to
    be met.

3. if criterion met, then 2nd criterion level set.

4. targeted behavior increased with multiple criterion levels (at least two).

Term

Changing Criterion Design Factors to consider

Definition

-length of treatment

    *long enough for behavior to stabilize -size of criterion
     change

    * large enough to notice a change (5, 10, 15 increments) -number of treatment phases

    *at least two, but enough to demonstrate a treatment
     effect.

Term

Changing Criterion Design Example

Definition

Himadi, Osteen, Kaiser & Daniel 1991: - study to reduce the delusional verbalization of a 51 year old white male with schizophrenia, chronic undifferentiated type.

-the investigators first observed baseline data on the number of delusional answers given

-the treatment session consisted of asking the patient a question that had reliably elicited a delusional answer and instructing the patient to respond to the question "so that other people would agree with your answers." After the patient provided the appropriate answer he was given a reinforce consisting of a cup of coffee.


*Phase 1 criterion, the patient had to provide non-delusional responses to two questions.

*Phase 2, non-delusional responses to four delusion0eliciting questions.

Term

Time Series

Definition
All single case designs are some form if a ______ design.
Term

Interaction

Definition
If you want to identify the combined effect of social support and having a mentor on reducing a child's violent behavior, you would use the _____ design.
Term

Changing Criterion

Definition
Charles monitored his coffee drinking and found that he typically drank about 20 cups of coffee a day. He thought this was too much and wanted to give up coffee drinking so he decided to initially reduce his consumption to 15 cups a day. When he was rinking 15 cups a day for a week then he reduced it to 10 cups a day and when he was drinking only 10 cups a day for a week he reduced it to 5 cups a day and then totally eliminated coffee drinking entirely. Charles was essentially using what type of design?
Term

Methodological Considerations BASELINE

Definition

A set of responses characterized by the absence of trend and little variability.

* Baseline

-must be stable before treatment implemented

-absence of trend, OR in the direction opposite of what is expected from the treatment.

-little variability *if variability in data, then track until stable or try to identify source of the instability.

-must also consider reactivity when tracking baseline data

**Cardinal Rule: Change only one variable at a time

Term

Methodological Considerations

LENGTH OF PHASE

Definition

-no set rule

-possibility of extraneous variable creeping in with long phases -carry-over effect may require short phases

-cyclic variations-maybe need to incorporate the cycle in a
  phases.

     *the longer the treatment the greater the possibility to get
      history effect.

Term

Criteria for Evaluating Change

Definition

-Experimental Criterion


-Therapeutic Criterion

Term

Experimental Criterion

Definition

In single-case research, repeated demonstration that a behavioral change occurs when the treatment is introduced.


-repeated demonstration of behavioral change should occur
  with treatment introduction.

-non-overlap of treatment and baseline phases

Term

Therapeutic Criterion

Definition

Demonstration that the treatment condition has eliminated a disorder or has improved everyday functioning.


- clinical significance of a therapeutic or other psychological
   intervention for an individual or group of clients.

- researchers often use social validation

- does it produce a change in the client's daily functioning?  
    
social comparison/social evaluation

Term

Social Validation

Definition
Determination by others that the treatment condition has significantly changes the participant's functioning.
Term

Social Comparison Method

Definition
A social validation method in which the participant is compared with non-deviant peers.
Term

Subjective or Subject Evaluation Method

Definition
Social validation method where others' are asked if they perceive a change in the participant's behavior.
Term

Subjective Comparison Method

Definition
Charles wanted to find out if his treatment for shyness in a 15 year old girl was working. The strategy that he used was to talk to the girl's friends and ask them about her behavior and if she seemed as shy as she had previously. He found out that her friends marveled at how outgoing she now was and did not engage in the shy behavior she previously exhibited. Charles used the ______ method to assess the effectiveness of his treatment.
Term

Time series design

Definition
Single-case research designs are a type of _________ design.
Term

Multiple-baseline design

Definition
When the ABA cannot be used because the targeted behavior does not return to baseline after the treatment is implemented, a good alternative is to use the _____ design.
Term

Interaction design

Definition
A single-case designs  you would use if you wanted to test the combined effect of two treatment conditions?
Term

Determine whether the behaviors seen during baseline and treatment overlap

Definition
If you used the experimental criterion for evaluating the effectiveness of a treatment effect, you would?
Term

-The repeated measurements during baseline and following
  treatment.


-The withdrawal of treatment in the ABA and ABAB designs.


-The administration of the treatment condition at different
  times to different participants in the multiple baseline design.

Definition
Rival Hypotheses are ruled out in the single-case designs by .....
Term

Qualitative Research

Definition

The type of research relying on qualitative research data.

-the approach to empirical research that relies primarily on the collection of qualitative data (i.e. non-numeric data such as words, pictures, images).


- Interpretative

- Multimethod

- Conducted in field or natural setting

Term

Mixed Method Research

Definition
Type of research in which quantitative and qualitative data or approaches are combined in a single study.
Term

Characteristics of Qualitative Research Design Strategies

Definition

Naturalistic Inquiry

Emergent design flexibility

Purposeful sampling

Term

Naturalistic inquiry

Definition
Studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally: non-manipulative and non-controlling openness to whatever emerges (lack of predetermined constraints on findings).
Term

Emergent design flexibility

Definition
Openness to adapting inquiry as understanding deepens and/or situations change; the researcher avoids getting locked into rigid designs that eliminate responsiveness and pursues new paths of discovery as they emerge
Term

Purposeful sampling

Definition
Cases for study (e.g. people, organizations, communities, cultures, events, critical influences) are selected because they are information rich and illuminative, that is they offer useful manifestations of the phenomenon of interest; sampling, then, is aimed at insight about the phenomenon, not empirical generalization from a sample to a population.
Term

Characteristics of Qualitative research Data Collection and Fieldwork Strategies

Definition

-Qualitative Data

-Personal experience and engagement

-Empathic neutrality and mindfulness

-Dynamic systems

Term

Qualitative Data

Definition
Observations that yield detailed, thick description, inquiry in depth, interviews that capture direct quotations about people's personal perspectives and experiences; case studies' careful documentation review.
Term

Personal Experience and Engagement

Definition
The researcher has direct contact with and gets close to the people, situation, and phenomenon under study. The researcher's personal experiences and insights are an important part of the inquiry and critical to understanding the phenomenon.
Term

Empathic Neutrality and Mindfulness

Definition
An empathic stance in interviewing seeks vicarious understanding without judgment (neutrality) by showing openness, sensitivity respect, awareness, and responsiveness; in observation it means being fully present (mindfulness)
Term

Dynamic Systems

Definition
Attention to process; assumes change as ongoing whether focus is on an individual, an organization, a community, or an entire culture; therefore, mindful of and attentive to system and situation dynamics.
Term

Characteristics of Qualitative Research Analysis Strategies

Definition

-Unique Case orientation

-Inductive analysis and creative synthesis

-Holistic perspective

-Context Sensitivity

-Voice, perspective, and reflexivity

Term

Unique case orientation

Definition
Assumption that each case is special and unique; the first level of analysis is being true to, respecting, and capturing that details of the individual cases being studied; cross-case analysis follows from and depends on the quality of individual case studies.
Term

Inductive analysis and creative synthesis

Definition
Immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover important patterns, themes, and interrelationships; begins by exploring, then confirming, guided by analytical principles rather than rules, ends with a creative synthesis.
Term

Holistic Perspective

Definition
The whole phenomenon under study is understood as a complex system that is more than the sum of its parts; focus on complex interdependencies and system dynamics that cannot meaningfully be reduced to a few discrete variables and linear, cause-effect relationships.
Term

Context Sensitivity

Definition
Places findings in a social, historical, and temporal context; careful about, even dubious of, the possibility or meaningfulness of generalizations across time and space; emphasizes instead careful comparative case analysis and extrapolating patterns for possible transferability and adaption in new settings.
Term

Voice, perspective, and reflexivity

Definition
The qualitative analyst owns and is reflective about his or her own voice and perspective; a credible voice conveys authenticity and trustworthiness; complete objectivity being impossible and pure subjectivity undermining credibility, the researcher's focus becomes balance-understanding and depicting the world authentically in all its complexity while being self-analytical, politically aware, and reflexive in consciousness.
Term

Context Sensitivity

Definition
The following is a characteristic of qualitative research?
Term

Personal contact and insight

Definition
A characteristic of qualitative research.
Term

Research Validity in Qualitative Research

Definition

-validity of qualitative research is often questioned because

*lack of rigor

*findings are largely dependent on the researcher (researcher bias)

-Two strategies for reducing researcher bias:

*reflexivity: thinking critically about one's interpretations and biases

*negative case sampling - searching for cases that challenge one's
  expectations or one's current findings.

Term

Validity Strategies that should be used in Qualitative research

Definition

-Data triangulation                                     - Pattern Matching

-Extended Fieldwork                                  - Peer Review

-Investigator Triangulation                        - Reflextivity

-Low Inference Descriptors                       - Researcher as detectives

-Methods Triangulation                              - Rule out alternative explantions

-Negative-case sampling                             - Theory Triangulation

-Participant Feedback                                - Triangulation


Term

Data Triangulation

Definition
The use of multiple data sources to help understand a phenomenon
Term

Extended fieldwork

Definition

Spending enough time in the field to fully understand what is being studied.


To provide for both discovery and validation researchers should collect data in the field over an extended period of time.

Term

External Audit

Definition
Using outside experts to assess the study quality
Term

Investigator triangulation

Definition
The use of multiple investigators (i.e. multiple researchers) in collecting, analyzing, and interpreting the data.
Term

Low-inference descriptors

Definition

Descriptions that are very close to participants' words or are direct verbatim quotes.


The use of description phrased very close to the participants' accounts and researcher's field notes. Verbatims (i.e. direct quotations) are a commonly used type of low-inference descriptors.

Term

Methods Triangulation

Definition
The use of multiple research methods or methods of data collection to study a phenomenon.
Term

Negative-case sampling

Definition

Searching for cases that challenge one's expectations or one's current findings.


Attempting to select cases that disconfirm the researcher's expectations and generalizations.

Term

Participant feedback

Definition

Member checking to see if participants agree with researcher's statements, interpretations, and conclusions.


The feedback and discussion of the researcher's interpretations and conclusions with the actual participants and other members of the participant community for verification and insight.

Term

Pattern Matching

Definition

Construction and testing of a complex hypothesis.

 

Predicting a series of results that form a distinctive pattern and then determining the degree to which the actual results fit the predicted pattern or fingerprint.

Term

Peer Review

Definition
Discussion of the researcher's interpretations and conclusions with other people. This includes discussion with a disinterested peer (e.g. with another researcher not directly involved). This peer should be skeptical and play the devil's advocate, challenging the researcher to provide solid evidence for any interpretations or conclusions. Discussion with peers who are familiar with the research can also help provide useful challenges and insights.
Term

Reflexivity

Definition

Thinking critically about one's interpretations and biases


Involves self awareness and critical self-reflection by the researcher on his or her potential biases and predispositions as these might affect the research process and conclusions.

Term

Researchers as detective

Definition

Metaphos applied to researcher looking for the local cause of a single event.


A metaphor characterizing the qualitative researcher as he or she searches for evidence about causes and effects. The researcher develops an understanding of the data through careful consideration and potential causes and effects and by systematically eliminating rival explanations or hypotheses until the final case is made beyond a reasonable doubt. The detective can utilize any of the strategies.

Term

Rule out alternative explanations

Definition
Making sure that you have carefully examined evidence for competing or rival explanations and that yours is the best explanation
Term

Theory Triangulation

Definition
The use of multiple explanations and perspectives to help interpret and explain the data.
Term

Triangulation

Definition
Cross checking information and conclusions through the use of multiple procedures or sources. When the different procedures or sources are in agreement you have corroboration.
Term

Researcher Bias

Definition
Only noticing data that supports one's prior expectation.
Term

Descriptive Validity

Definition

The factual accuracy of the account reported by the researcher.

-the factual accuuracy of the researcher's account

-strategies for achieving

 *investigator triangulation

   - use of multiple investigator's to collect and interpret the
     data

  - helps to insure descriptive validity

Term

Interpretive Validity

Definition

Accurately portraying the participants' subjective viewpoints and meanings.

-strategies for achieving:

 *participant feedback

  - member checking to see if participants agree with
    researcher's statements, interpretations, and conclusions

  *low-inference descriptors
  - descriptions that are very close to participants' words or
    are direct verbatim quotes.

Term

Theoretical Validity

Definition

Degree to which the theory or explanation fits the data.

-strategies for achieving

* extended fieldwork

-spending enough time in the field to fully understand what is being studied. *theory triangulation

-the use of multiple theories or perspectives to aid in interpreting the data *Pattern Matching

-construction and testing of a complex hypothesis

*Peer Review

-discussing your interpretations with one's peers and colleagues.

Term

Idiographic Causation

Definition
An action for a particular person in a local situation with an observable result.
Term

Nomological Causation

Definition
The standard view of causation in science; refers to causal relationships among variables.
Term

Internal Validity

Definition

-Is observed relationship causal?

-idiographic causation -nomological causation


*Strategies to achieve

- researcher as detective

- methods triangulation

- data triangulation

Term

External Validity

Definition

-the ability to generalize findings to other people, settings, and times.


*Naturalistic generalization - generalization, based on similarity, made by the reader of a research report.


*Theoretical generalization - generalization of a theoretical explanation beyond the particular research study.

Term

Four Major Qualitative Research Methods

Definition

-Phenomenology

-Ethnography

-Case Study Research

-Grounded Theory

Term

Phenomenology

Definition
Qualitative research method where the researcher attempts to understand and describe how one or more participants experience a phenomenon.
Term

Life World

Definition
A person's subjective inner world of experience
Term

Phenomenology cont.

Definition

-researcher attempts to understand and describe how one or more
  participants experience a phenomenon.

*e.g. death of a loved one, a counseling session, an illness, winning a
  championship football game, etc.. -key question

*meaning, structure, and essence of lived experience.

- accessing participants' life world

*the research participant's inner world of subjective experience.

Term

Examples of Phenomenological studies

Definition

-obsessive compulsive disorder

-addiction

-racism

-sexual abuse

-psychotic symptoms of narcolepsy

-life satisfaction

-the meaning of aging

Term

Primary methods of data collection for a Phenomenological Study

Definition

-in depth interviews

*extract phrases and statement that pertain to phenomenon *interpret and give meaning to phrases and statements

*write narrative describing the phenomenon

Term

In depth interviews

Definition
The primary method of data collection for phenomenological research is _____
Term

Significant Statements

Definition
Words, phrases, or sentence length participant statements that the researcher thinks vividly communicate the participant's experience.
Term

Essence

Definition
Phenomenological structure of the experience.
Term

Ethnography

Definition
Qualitative research method that focuses on the discovery and description of the culture of a group of people.
Term

Ethnography cont.

Definition

-focuses on the discovery and description of the culture of a group of people

-culture *the shared beliefs, values, practices, language, norms, rituals, and material things that the members of a group use to interpret and understand their world

-shared values *culturally defined standards about what is good or bad or desirable or undesirable -holism *idea that a whole, such as a culture, is more than the sum of its individual parts.

-shared beliefs *statements or conventions that people sharing a culture hold to be true or false. -norms written and unwritten rules specifying how people in a group are supposed to think and act -the focus of ethnography

* emic perspective

-the insiders perspective

*etic perspective

- the researcher's eternal or "objective outsider" perspective

Term

Primary data collection method for Ethnography

Definition

-participant observation

- researcher becomes an active participant in the group being investigated.

- requires Entry and Acceptance by group

- must guard against reactive effect


*non typical behavior of participants because of presence of the researcher

-data analysis


*identify themes and patterns of behavior

-write narrative report.

Term

Ethnography Other Terms

Definition

-Gatekeepers

*group members who control a researcher's access to the group

-Ethnocentric

*judgment of people in other cultures based on the standards of your culture -going native

*over-identification with the group being studied, so that one loses any possibility of objectivity.

Term

Culture

Definition
The shared beliefs, values, practices, language, norms, rituals, and material things that the members of a group use to interpret and understand their world.
Term

Shared Beliefs

Definition
Statements or conventions that people sharing a culture hold to be true or false.
Term

Shared Values

Definition
Culturally defined standards about what is good or bad or desirable or undesirable.
Term

Norms

Definition
Written and unwritten rules specifying how people in a group are supposed to think and act
Term

Holism

Definition
Idea that a whole, such as a culture, is more than the sum of its individual parts.
Term

Emic Perspective

Definition
The insiders perspective
Term

Etic Perspective

Definition
The researcher's external or "objective outsider" perspective.
Term

Participant Observation

Definition
Data collection method in which the researcher becomes an active participant in the group being investigated.
Term

Gatekeepers

Definition
Group members who control a researcher's access to the group
Term

Reactive effect

Definition
Non-typical behavior of participants because of the presence of the researcher
Term

Fieldwork

Definition
A general term for data collection in ethnographic research
Term

Ethnocentric

Definition
Judgment of people in other cultures based on the standards of your culture
Term

Going Native

Definition
Over-identification with the group being studied so that one loses any possibility of objectivity
Term

Field notes

Definition
Notes taken by the researcher during (or immediately after) one's observations in the field.
Term

Case Study

Definition

Qualitative research method in which the researcher provides a detailed description and account of one or more cases.

 

- primary collection method

   *multiple sources and methods of data collection
     are used

examples: in-depth interviews, documents, questionaires, test results, and archival records

Term

Case

Definition
A bounded system
Term

Intrinsic case study

Definition
Case study in which the researcher is only interested in understanding the individual case
Term

Instrumental case study

Definition
Case study in which the researcher studies a case in order to understand something more general than the particular case
Term

Case Study Designs

Definition

-intrinsic

-instrumental

-collective/comparative

-cross-analysis

Term

Collective/Comparative case study

Definition
Study of multiple cases for the purpose of comparative
Term

Cross-case analysis

Definition
Case study analysis in which cases are compared and contrasted.
Term

Grounded Theory

Definition

Methodology for generating and developing a theory that is grounded in the particular data.

 

Term

Theory

Definition
An explanation of how and why something operates as it does.
Term
Four Key characteristics of a good grounded theory
Definition

1. the newly constructed grounded theory should fit the data - does the theory correspond to real-world data?

2. the theory must provide understanding of the phenomenon

* is the theory clear and understandable to researchers and practitioners?

3. the theory should have some generality

*is the theory abstract enough to move beyond the specifics in the original research study?

*can the theory be applied to produce real-world results?

4. data collection *most common methods of data collection are interviews and observations.

Term

Data analysis for Grounded Theory

Definition

- open coding

*first stage of analysis in GT; it is the most exploratory stage. -axial coding

*second stage of data analysis in GT; focus is on making concepts more abstract and ordering them into the theory -selective coding

*third and final stage of data analysis in GT; the theory is finalized

Term

Theoretical Sensitivity

Definition
Researcher is effective in understanding what kinds of data need to be collected and what aspects of already collected data are important for theory development.
Term

Open Coding

Definition
1st stage of GT; it is the most exploratory stage
Term

Axial Coding

Definition
2nd Stage of GT; focus is on making concepts more abstract and ordering them into the theory
Term

Selective Coding

Definition
3rd/Final Stage of GT; theory is finalized
Term

Theoretical Saturation

Definition
Occurs when no new information relevant to the GT is emerging from the data and the GT has been sufficiently validated.
Term

Compatibility Thesis

Definition
Position that quantitative and qualitative research methods and philosophies can be combined
Term

Pragmatism

Definition
Philosophy focusing in what works as the criterion of what should be viewed as tentatively true and useful in research and practice.
Term

Mixed Methods Research

Definition

The research approach in which both quantitative and qualitative methods are used


* Questions to be answered when using a mixed design

-should you primarily use one methodology or treat them
  equally?

-should phases of study be conducted concurrently or
  sequentially?

Term

Inside-Outside Validity

Definition
Present when the researcher provides both the insider and objective outsider perspectives.
Term

Weakness minimization validity

Definition
Present when the researcher compensates for weakness of one approach through the use of an additional approach
Term

Sequential validity

Definition
Making sure that the ordering of quantitative and qualitative components in a sequential design does not bias the results
Term

Sample integration validity

Definition
Researchers must not treat the quantitative and qualitative samples as equal, but, instead, draw appropriate conclusions from each sample.
Term

Multiple Validities

Definition
Making sure your mixed methods study meets appropriate quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods validity types.
Term

Time Order

Definition
One of the two dimensions used in MM design matrix; its levels are concurrent and sequential
Term

Paradigm emphasis

Definition
One of the two dimensions used in a MM design matrix; its levels are equal status and dominant status.
Term

Context sensitivity

Definition
A characteristic of qualitative research.
Term

Personal contact and insight

Definition
A characteristic of qualitative research.
Term

In-depth Interviews

Definition
The primary method of data collection used in phenomenological research.
Term

Anthropology

Definition
The disciplinary origin of Ethnography is?
Term

Inductively generate a theory

Definition
The purpose of a grounded theory study is to?
Term

It is an equal-status sequential mixed methods research design

Definition
What is true about this design: QUAL > QUAN
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