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covenant bio112 exam 1
Sarah Geile
100
Biology
Undergraduate 1
03/26/2012

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Term
Explain the influence of James Hutton and Charles Lyell on Darwinian evolutionary theory.
Definition
Hutton and Lyell theorized that terrain formed and changed over a long period of time by way of slow, continuous processes (uniformitarianism). Their ideas suggested an old earth.
Term
Explain the influence of Thomas Malthus on Darwinian evolutionary theory.
Definition
Thomas Malthus' social theories asserted that the population would undergo a "struggle for existence" because of limited resources. This idea lead to the concept of natural selection or "survival of the fittest."
Term
What are Charles Darwin's main evolutionary conclusions?
Definition
Going far enough back in time, all species related through ancestral connections. Given unlimited resources, species would tend to grow exponentially with varying traits. Because resources are limited, the better-adapted organisms survive the weaker organism, resulting in slow changes within a species. Eventually one species can diverge into two or more species depending on the environmental factors.
Term
What basic evolutionary concepts were developed by Lamarck?
Definition
Organisms have the tendency to adapt and change in response to their environment. There is continuous line of descent from simple ancient organisms to more complex modern organisms. Organs or structures that are not used deteriorate while organs or structures that aid in survival are retained and strengthened. Adaptive changes in an organism are heritable (passed on to offspring).
Term
Explain the idea of "natural selection."
Definition
The idea of natural selection is the "survival of the fittest:" the idea that the stronger organisms of a species survive, while the weaker ones are unable to survive.
Term
What are the key ideas of "the modern synthesis"?
Definition
The "modern synthesis" combines Darwin's ideas with modern genetics research. It asserts that the natural variation that exists is caused by random changes in the genetic material of a species over time. If genetic changes promote an individual’s survival and/or ability to reproduce, natural selection may increase the prevalence of that trait in future generations.
Term
What is a "fishapod"?
Definition
The fishapod is a supposed "transitional form" between two species (the fish and the tetrapod).
Term
What do evolutionary theorists say about oysters?
Definition
Evolutionary theorists have hypothesized the flatness of oyster shells is an evolutionary adaptation that did not exist 200 million years ago. They suggest that the oyster shells adapted for greater stability in strong water currents.
Term
What is "biogeography"?
Definition
The study of the geographical distribution of distinct and/or modern living species.
Term
Define convergent evolution.
Definition
When 2 distinct species (from different lineages) begin to show similar traits because they have adapted for similar environments.
Term
What are the long snouts of anteaters and echidna and example of?
Definition
Convergent evolution.
Term
What are the different kinds of homologies used by evolutionary theorists to support theories of common ancestors?
Definition
Anatomical (similar physical structures), developmental (similarities during embryonic stages), molecular (similarities in biochemical characteristics of cells), and genetic (2 genes derived from the same ancestral gene)
Term
What is the known number of species?
Definition
1.4 million
Term
Explain the "morphological species concept."
Definition
A species is determined based on similar physical characteristics.
Term
Explain the "biological species concept."
Definition
A species is determined based on its members' potential to interbreed with one another in nature to produce viable, fertile offspring but cannot successfully interbreed with members of other species.
Term
Explain the "ecological species concept."
Definition
A species is determined based on its unique ecological niche.
Term
What is "habitat isolation"?
Definition
A pre-zygotic reproductive barrier in which two species cannot interbreed because they are geographically separated.
Term
What is "temporal isolation"?
Definition
A pre-zygotic reproductive barrier in which two species cannot interbreed because they reproduce at different times of the day or year.
Term
What is "behavioral isolation"?
Definition
A pre-zygotic reproductive barrier in which two species do not interbreed because of behavioral differences that prevent mating, for example, differences in songs for birds.
Term
What is "mechanical isolation"?
Definition
A pre-zygotic reproductive barrier in which two species cannot interbreed because their genitalia are incompatible.
Term
What is "gametic isolation"?
Definition
A pre-zygotic reproductive barrier in which two species cannot interbreed because their gametes fail to unite successfully.
Term
What is "hybrid inviability"?
Definition
A post-zygotic reproductive barrier in which two species cannot produce successful offspring because the fertilized egg cannot progress past early embryonic stages.
Term
What is "hybrid sterility"?
Definition
A post-zygotic reproductive barrier in which two species cannot produce successful offspring because their offspring are sterile. (Mule)
Term
What is "hybrid breakdown"?
Definition
A post-zygotic reproductive barrier in which two species cannot produce successful offspring because, though the hybrids are viable and fertile, subsequent generations have genetic abnormalities.
Term
Explain "allopatric speciation."
Definition
When a species diverges because part of the species is geographically separated from another part. The change in environmental conditions causes one part of the population to adapt and form a new species.
Term
Explain "sympatric speciation."
Definition
Divergence that is proposed to occur when members of a species initially occupy the same habitat within the same and range. Involves abrupt genetic changes that quickly lead to the reproductive isolation of a group of individuals.
Term
Define "alternation of generations."
Definition
A sequence in a life cycle in which a haploid, gamete-producing phase is followed by a diploid, spore-producing phrase; the spores of the latter reinitiate the haploid phase.
Term
What are the four essential processes in plant growth and development?
Definition
Cell division, growth, cell specialization, and apoptosis
Term
Describe the shoot system of a plant.
Definition
Stems, branches, leaves and other organ systems. Produced by the shoot apical meristem.
Term
What are the three types of primary meristems?
Definition
Protoderm, procambium, ground meristem
Term
What does the protoderm do?
Definition
The protoderm generates the epidermis.
Term
What does the procambium do?
Definition
The procambium produces vascular tissues (primary xylem and phloem).
Term
What does the ground meristem do?
Definition
The ground meristem produces ground tissues (cortex, pith).
Term
What are the secondary meristems and what do they do?
Definition
The secondary meristems include the vascular cambium and the cork cambium. They surround the established stem of a plant and cause it to grow laterally (i.e. larger in girth/diameter).
Term
What are stem cells?
Definition
Stem cells remain undifferentiated but can produce new cells capable of differentiating into specialized tissues.
Term
What are the two ways a plant can grow?
Definition
A plant grows either by producing new cells or expanding existing cells.
Term
What are the two main purposes for a plant's leaves?
Definition
1) Leaves are the plant's main photosynthetic system.
2) Leaves allow for gas exchange
Term
What is the purpose of the waxy cuticle on the surface of a leaf?
Definition
The waxy cuticle helps protect the leaf from water loss.
It also serves to filter UV radiation and reduce microbe and animal attack.
Term
What is the purpose of a leaf's trichomes?
Definition
Trichomes offer protection from excessive light, ultraviolet radiation, extreme air temperature, or attack by herbivores.
Term
What do a leaf's guard cells do?
Definition
Guard cells regulate stomatal opening and closing.
Term
Name some examples of "modified" leaves.
Definition
Tendrils
Tough scales that protect buds
Poinsetta “petals”
Cactus spines
Term
List some of the purposes of a plant's stem.
Definition
Support for the plant body
Carries nutrients throughout plant (in vascular tissues)
Defense system to protect against predators and infection
Produce leaves, branches, and flowers
Hold leaves up
May function in storage and photosynthesis
Term
Describe the function of xylem briefly.
Definition
Xylem is primarily responsible for the transport of water and dissolved minerals from roots upward in plant body.
Term
Describe the function of phloem briefly.
Definition
Phloem is primarily responsible for the transport of organic nutrients (dissolved sugars) from leaves or roots to other areas of the plant (flow can occur in both directions, depending on time of year).
Term
Briefly describe xylem cells.
Definition
Xylem is composed of:
Unspecialized parenchyma cells
Stiff fibers for structural support (sclerenchyma cells)
Tracheids and vessel elements (dead cells) that conduct water and dissolved minerals
Term
Briefly describe phloem cells.
Definition
Phloem is composed of:
Sieve elements (living cells)
Companion cells (also living) aid sieve element function
Parenchyma cells
Supportive fibers
Term
What is tree bark composed of?
Definition
Bark has two layers,
1) Outer bark (mostly dead cork cells from cork cambium)
2) inner bark (secondary phloem from vascular cambium)
Term
What are some examples of modified stems?
Definition
Rhizomes (underground stems). Tubers (potatoes) and bulbs (onions, irises, tulips) are underground modified stems that store food.
Stolons (aboveground creeping stem)
Term
How do you identify a root system's "zone of maturation."
Definition
The presence of root hairs.
Term
What kind of root system do eudicots typically have?
Definition
Taproots (one main root with many branches)
Term
What kind of root system to monocots typically have?
Definition
Fibrous roots (no main root, many equivalent branches from base of stem)
Term
What internal stimuli do plants respond to?
Definition
Electrical signals (action potentials: particularly important in rapid plant movements)
Chemical signals (hormones: control plant cell, tissue and organ development and allow plants to respond to environmental stimuli)
Term
What external stimuli do plants respond to?
Definition
Light, atmospheric gases (CO2 and water vapor), temperature, touch, wind, gravity, water, rocks, soil stimuli, herbivores, pathogens, organic chemicals from neighboring plants, beneficial or harmful soil organisms, agricultural chemicals including hormones
Term
What are plant "auxins"?
Definition
Auxins are the “master” plant hormone. They influence plant structure, development, and behavior in many ways.
Term
What practical uses do plant auxins have for humans?
Definition
Plant auxins are used in seedless fruit production and to help prevent premature fruit drop. They can also be used as commercial rooting compound. By pinching topmost shoots, famers can alter new outgrowth resulting in bushy plants.
Term
What did the experiments of Went and Briggs reveal about the role of auxins in phototropism?
Definition
The auxin hormone is directly responsible for the way a plant grows toward light.
Term
What is the role of the plant hormone "cytokinins"?
Definition
Promotes cell division in plant shoots and roots.
Term
What is the role of the plant hormone "gibberellins"?
Definition
Influences various developmental processes including stem elongation, germination, dormancy, flowering and leaf and fruit maturation and senescence (deterioration with age).
Term
What is the role of the plant hormone "ethylene"?
Definition
Stimulates or regulates the ripening of fruit, the opening of flowers, and the abscission (or shedding) of leaves.
Term
What is the role of plant stress hormones?
Definition
Help plants respond to environmental stresses such as flooding, drought, high salinity, cold, heat, and attack by microorganisms and herbivores
Term
What are some examples of plant stress hormones?
Definition
Abscisic acid
Brassinosteroids
Salicylic acid (SA)
Systemin
Jasmonic acid
Nitric oxide (NO)
Term
What is the advantage of a plant's structural barriers such as cuticles, epidermal trichomes, and outer bark?
Definition
Structural barriers help to reduce infection and herbivore attack.
Term
What happens when roots encounter rocks as they grow down?
Definition
Due to "thigmotropism"--the plant's response to touch--the plant grows horizontally until it is free to grow downward again.
Term
What is the grasping behavior of vine tendrils an example of?
Definition
Thigmotropism
Term
What do the terms "positively gravotropic" and "negatively gravotropic" mean?
Definition
Positively gravotropic refers to the roots, which grow downward with the force of gravity. Negatively gravotropic refers to the shoots, which grow upward against gravity.
Term
What are some examples of plan macronutrients?
Definition
Nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and sulfur
Term
What are some examples of plant micronutrients?
Definition
Chlorine, iron, maganese, boron, zinc, sodium. copper, molybdenum, and nuckel
Term
Why is water essential for plants?
Definition
1. As a nutrient, water is the source of most hydrogens and some oxygens in organic compounds
2. Water is important for metabolic biochemical reactions
3. Water serves as a solvent for other mineral nutrients
4. Water is the main transport medium in plants
Term
What is "photoperiodism"?
Definition
A plant's ability to measure and respond to light amounts and day length.
Term
What are "cryptochromes"?
Definition
Cryptochromes are blue light receptors that allow a young seedling to determine if there is enough light in the environment to allow photosynthesis. If there is not, the seedling will continue to elongate until it reaches light.
Term
What is "phototroponin"?
Definition
Phototroponin is the main blue-light sensor. It has two components: a protein that has a kinase domain and a flavin pigment molecule that can absorb blue light.
Term
What is "phytochrome"?
Definition
A red and far-red-light receptor which influences many plant growth and developmental processes.
Term
What are "long-day plants"?
Definition
Long-day plants flower in the spring or early summer, when the night period is shorter than a defined period.
Term
What are short-day plants?
Definition
Short-day plants flower only when the night length is longer than a defined period, as in late summer, fall, or winter.
Term
What are day-neutral plants?
Definition
Day-neutral plants flower regardless of the night length as long as the day length meets minimum requirements for plant growth.
Term
What is the shoot apical meristem?
Definition
The region where new root tissues of plants are produced.
Term
What is the root cortex?
Definition
A region of ground parenchyma located between the epidermis and vascular tissue of mature plant roots.
Term
What does Carbon-14 radiometric dating rely on?
Definition
1. The production of Carbon-14 in the upper atmosphere has been constant throughout earth's history.
2. The presence of organic material in sedimentary rock strata
Term
What are the most common fixed forms of nitrogen?
Definition
Ammonia, ammonium, and nitrate.
Term
What is the haploid stage in plant growth?
Definition
The Gametophyte/haploid stage produces gamete by mitosis. It is microscopic in flowering plants.
Term
What is the diploid stage in plant growth?
Definition
The sporophyte/diploid stage produces spores by meiosis. In flowering plants, this is the visible stage.
Term
What is the function of a plant's fruit?
Definition
Fruit is meant to enclose and protect the seed and aid in seed dispersal.
Term
What is enclosed in a plant seed?
Definition
The plant embryo is contained within the plant seed.
Term
What are the three generalized types of meristems?
Definition
Apical meristems, primary meristems, and secondary meristems
Term
What kind of leaf venation is found in eudicots?
Definition
Pinnate or palmate
Term
What kind of leaf venation is found in monocots?
Definition
Parallel venation
Term
From whence is primary vascular tissue derived?
Definition
Primary meristems (procambium)
Term
From whence is secondary vascular tissue derived?
Definition
Secondary meristems (vascular cambium)
Term
What is the scientific "consensus" on the age of the earth?
Definition
4.55 billion years
Term
How long ago was the proposed "Hadean Eon"?
Definition
4.5 billion years ago. Supposedly prokaryotes developed around this time.
Term
How long ago was the proposed "Archaean Eon"?
Definition
3.8 billion years ago. Supposedly photosynthetic bacteria developed around this time.
Term
How long ago was the proposed "Proterozoic Eon"?
Definition
2.5 billion years ago. Supposedly multicellular eukaryotes developed around this time.
Term
Explain the Calendar Day interpretation of creation.
Definition
The six days of creation where literal 24-hour days and took place in the exact chronological order described in the Bible.
Term
Explain the Day-Age interpretation of creation.
Definition
The "days" indicated in Genesis one are actually undefined lengths of time, though they occurred in the order described.
Term
Explain the Framework interpretation of creation.
Definition
The creation narrative is to be understood literarily, not scientifically. The days may not be 24-hour and they may not have occurred in that order, because the narrative is arranged for poetic beauty not scientific accuracy.
Term
Explain the Analogical Days interpretation of creation.
Definition
"Days" is a metaphor for the rhythm of work and rest. Genesis' days may not be 24 hour, are probably not in chronological order, and may overlap with one another.
Term
When was Darwin's "Origin of Species" published?
Definition
1859
Term
Why did Cuvier influence Darwinian evolution theory?
Definition
Cuvier's idea of "catastrophism" established the assumption that fossil strata are a kind of record of the history of life.
Term
Define "adaptive radiation."
Definition
When a single species evolves into an array of descendants that differ greatly in habitat, form, or behavior.
Term
What are "pneumatophores"?
Definition
A pneumatophore is an adaptive root that is directed upward to allow for gas exchange.
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