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Covenant Bio Exam 1
notecards for Dr. Nelson's final from exam 1
101
Biology
Undergraduate 1
04/24/2012

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Term
Creation Days View: "6 Day"
Definition
-young earth, 4-5000 years old
-comes from straight forward reading of Genesis
Term
Creation Days View: "Day-Age"
Definition
-not a literal 24 hour day
-days are not literally 24 hours, but could have lasted ages
Term
Creation Days View: "Analogical Days"
Definition
-days are God's work days, not our work days
-days do not have a known length, may overlap, or represent logical rather than chronological understanding of God's work
Term
Creation Days View: "Framework"
Definition
-similar to analogical day view
-creation day is a poetic metaphor to communicate God's creative work
-length of day is unknown, but time is viewed as unimportant
Term
Name some factors that might contribute to the extinction of a species
Definition
-Climate/Temperature, atmosphere, landmasses, floods, glaciation, volcanic eruptions, meteorite impacts
Term
Continental Drift
Definition
landmasses known as continents shift their positions, change shapes, and separate from one another
Term
Radioisotope Dating
Definition
-used to determine the age of fossils by measuring the decay of rocks in the same sedimentary layer as the fossil
Term
What is the general trend of simple and complex organisms in rock strata?
Definition
-simple organisms are in deeper strata, while more complex organisms are in higher strata
Term
What is an issue with Carbon 14 dating of fossils?
Definition
-it assumes that the production of Carbon 14 in the upper atmosphere is constant
Term
What is an issue with Potassium 40 dating of fossils?
Definition
-it often requires assumptions about the initial amounts of the isotope that was present in the material
-it assumes that radioactive decay has always been constant
Term
What Eon is attributed with the rise formation of prokaryotic cells?
Definition
the Archaean Eon
Term
Heterotroph
Definition
organism that gets energy from eating other organisms
Term
Autotroph
Definition
Organisms that use energy from inorganic molecules, or light
Term
Cambrian Explosion
Definition
-abrupt increase in diversity of animal species
-chordates, mollusks, arthropods, echinoderms and many other distinct animal species arose out of this
Term
Biological Evolution
Definition
-a heritable change in one or more characteristics of a population or species across many generations
Term
Microevolution
Definition
-small scale changes of genetic sequences over time
Term
Macroevolution
Definition
-large scale changes resulting in the formation of a new species or group of species
Term
Population
Definition
-members of the same species that are likely to encounter each other
Term
Species
Definition
drop of related organisms that share a distinctive form or function
Term
Charles Darwin
Definition
-British naturalist born in 1809
-developed the theory of evolution and published its ideas in "The Origin of Species"
Term
Alfred Russell Wallace
Definition
-independently developed a theory similar to the theory of evolution
-he presented it along side of Darwin
Term
Empirical Thought
Definition
-view from European scholars in the 1600s that involved forming a hypothesis based on observations and set spiritual matters aside
Term
Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
Definition
-theory developed by Lamarck
-suggested that species evolved in a constant upward direction from dead matter towards human "perfection"
-acquired traits were passed to offspring
Term
How did Thomas Malthus influence Darwin's work?
Definition
-Malthus proposed that population will grow, but only a certain percentage will survive (war, famine etc.) and reproduce
-this helped Darwin's ideas about survival of the fittest
Term
What did Darwin's study of finches reveal?
Definition
-the finches developed traits to better cope with their environments
Term
Greek Ideas behind Darwin's work
Definition
-Plato's essentialism: there are variations of the ideal form, evolution will not occur in perfectly adapted creatures
-Aristotle- there is an ordered ladder of life, no room for change
Term
Natural Theology
Definition
-creator's plan can be understood through nature
-adaptations reveal that creatures were designed for certain purposes
-classification allows for an appreciation of the hierarchal steps on the ladder of life
Term
Who was Linneaus?
Definition
-the father of taxonomy
-classified animals in Kingdom,Phylum, Class, Order, etc.
-"God creates, Linneaus arranges"
Term
Natural Selection
Definition
-certain individuals are less likely to survive and reproduce in particular environments, while others are better suited to thrive
Term
Adaptation
Definition
-evolutionary change in which a population's characteristics change to make its members better equipped to survive
Term
How did Cuvier interpret fossil strata?
Definition
-he interpreted it as a record of life's history
-boundaries between fossil strata corresponded to the time of historical, catastrophic events
Term
What is Catastrophism
Definition
-Cuvier's idea that catastrophic events caused mass extinctions
-changes in species from one strata to the next revealed immigration of organisms from other populations
Term
How did James Hutton and Charles Lyell view change in the earth?
Definition
-processes occurred over long periods of time
-slow, continuous processes that continue to operate in the world
-for example, the slow erosion that forms canyons
-the suggest an old earth
Term
What is selective breeding?
Definition
-involves traits that are transmitted from parents to offspring
-used to modify traits in domesticated species
-influenced Darwin's thinking through pigeon breeders
-made Darwin wonder if "natural forces" could alter species in the same way
Term
What is a transitional form? Give an example
Definition
-it is spies that provides a link between earlier species and later species
-the Tikataalik Roseae (fishapod) is an example is an transitional form between fish and tetrapods
Term
What did Darwin discover about plants and animals based on their environments on his trip to South America?
Definition
-temperate South American flora and fauna were more similar to tropical South American flora and fauna than they were to those of temperate environments in Europe
-South American species were more like other south american species regardless of environment
Term
Darwin's Descent with Modification
Definition
-two separated populations of a species could diverge as they adapt to separate local conditions
-over many generations, divergences could generate a new species
Term
The Modern Synthesis
Definition
-natural variation exists that is caused by random changes in the genetic material
-genetic changes may be advantageous, disadvantageous or neutral
-if genetic change promotes an individuals ability to survive or reproduces, then natural selection may increase the occurrence of the trait in future generations
Term
Punctuated Equilibrium
Definition
-fossils show that many changes in organisms suddenly appear
-changes are rarely gradual
Term
What are the suggested sources of rapid rates of evolution?
Definition
-changes in physical or biological environments can create conditions that favor new traits
Term
How frequent are the emergences of novel features in organisms?
Definition
-very infrequent
-usually change happens to a pre-existing structure, rather than the sprouting of a new one
Term
What does fossil evidence suggest about Oysters?
Definition
-they underwent shell changes
-smaller, curved shells were followed by larger, flatter shells
-this is believed to have occurred due to flatter shells being more stable in disruptive water currents
Term
Biogeography
Definition
-the study of the geographical distribution of extinct and modern species
Term
Endemic Species
Definition
-species that are naturally found in a particular location
Term
Convergent Evolution
Definition
-2 species from different proposed ancestral lineages show similar characteristics and occupy similar environments
Term
Examples of Convergent Evolution
Definition
-Giant anteater and echidna both have long snouts and tongues to feed on ants
-aerial rootlets for clinging in english ivy and winter creeper
-overall body forms of dolphins and fish
-antifreeze proteins in very different cold water fish
Term
Analogous Structures/Convergent Traits
Definition
-structures that arise independently in separate species, but are similar because of the environment occupied by the two species
Term
Homology
Definition
-similarities between organisms attributed to common evolutionary ancestor
Term
Anatomical Homology
Definition
-homologous physical structures are structures in different species that are proposed to be derived from a common ancestor
Term
Example of Homologous physical structures
Definition
-same set of bones in the limbs of modern vertebrates proposed to have undergone evolutionary change for different uses
Term
Vestigial Structures
Definition
-anatomical structures that have barely any or no function, but resemble functional structures of ancestors
Term
Example of Vestigial Structures
Definition
-in humans: ear wiggling muscles, tail bone, appendix
-pelvic bones in some snakes and whales
Term
Developmental Homology
Definition
-species differ as adults, but share significant similarities during embryonic stages
Term
List some examples of Developmental Homology
Definition
-Notochord present in diverse chordate species
-Presence of brachial arches (gill ridges) in human embryos and fish embryos
-teeth in embryonic baleen whales
-human embryo have long bony tails
Term
Molecular Homology
Definition
-similarities in biochemical characteristics of cells suggests to some that life forms came from a common ancestor
Term
What are some factors contributing to Molecular Homology?
Definition
-all living species use DNA to store information
-certain biochemical pathways are found in all or nearly all species
Term
Homologous Genes
Definition
-2 genes derived from the same ancestral gene
-considered to possibly reveal molecular details of evolutionary change
Term
Genetic Homology
Definition
-2 gene sequences may be similar due to the same ancestral gene, but not identical due to independent accumulation of different mutations over time
-the more time between the common ancestor, the more divergence
Term
What are some difficulties in identifying species?
Definition
-a single species may exist in 2 distinct populations that may be thought to be in the slow process of evolving into 2 or more distinct species
-it's hard to come up with a universal definition of species
Term
Morphological species concept
Definition
-species are identified by having a unique set of physical traits
-it also includes DNA/protein sequence traits
Term
What are advantages of the Morphological species concept?
Definition
-can be applied to all organisms, both asexually and sexually reproducing
-can be applied to extinct organisms
Term
What are drawbacks of the Morphological species concept?
Definition
-its hard to determine how many traits to consider
-traits often vary in a continuous way, so where do you draw the line between 2 species
-members of the same species can look very different
-members of a different species can look similar
Term
Biological species concept
Definition
-a species is a group of individuals whose members have the potential to interbreed and produce viable, fertile offspring
-the species cannot interbreed successfully with members of other species
-defined by reproductive isolation in natural environments
Term
What are 2 issues with the biological species concept?
Definition
-it may be difficult to determine if 2 populations are truly reproductively isolated
-it cannot be applied to asexual species, or extinct species
Term
Evolutionary/phylogenetic/cladistic species concept
Definition
-a species is derived from a single lineage that is distinct from other lineages and has its own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate
-species are unbranched lines of phylogenetic trees
Term
Lineage
Definition
-genetic relationship between an individual or group of individuals and its ancestors
Term
What is a drawback of the Evolutionary/phylogenetic/cladistic species concept?
Definition
-lineages are often difficult to examine and identify
Term
Ecological species concept
Definition
-a species is defined by the ecological niche that it inhabits
-unique set of habitat resources that a species requires, along with its influence on the environment and other species makes a species
Term
What is the ecological species concept useful for?
Definition
-it is helpful in identifying asexually reproducing species (like bacteria and protists)
Term
What are drawbacks to the ecological species concept?
Definition
-depends on how fully the niche, needs of the organism, are known
-what about convergent evolution?
Term
Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
Definition
-consequence of genetic changes as diverging species/populations adapt to their environments
-prevents exchange of genetic materials
Term
What are the 2 overall categories for Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms?
Definition
-Prezygotic Barriers
-Postzygotic Barriers
Term
Prezygotic Barriers
Definition
-prevent formation of a zygote
Term
Postzygotic Barriers
Definition
-block development of viable, fertile individuals
Term
What are the different types of Prezygotic Barriers?
Definition
-Habitat Isolation, Temporal Isolation, Behavioral Isolation, Mechanical Isolation, and Gametic Isolation
Term
What are the different types of Postzygotic Barriers?
Definition
-Hybrid inviability, Hybrid sterility, and Hybrid breakdown
Term
Habitat Isolation
Definition
-prezygotic barrier
-geographic barrier prevents contact
Term
Temporal Isolation
Definition
-prezygotic barrier
-reproduction occurs at different times of the day or year
Term
Behavioral Isolation
Definition
-prezygotic barrier
-occurs in species where behavior is important in mate choice
-example: changes in song for song birds
Term
Mechanical Isolation
Definition
-prezygotic barrier
-size or incompatible genitalia prevents mating
Term
Gametic Isolation
Definition
-prezygotic barrier
-gametes fail to unite successfully
-important for species that release gametes into the water or air
Term
Hybrid Inviability
Definition
-postzygotic barrier
-fertilized egg cannot progress past early embryonic stages
Term
Hybrid sterility
Definition
-postzygotic barrier
-interspecies hybrid viable but sterile
-example: mule
Term
Hybrid Breakdown
Definition
-postzygotic barrier
-hybrids are violable and fertile, but the offspring that they produces have genetic abnormalities
Term
Allopatric Speciation
Definition
-when some members of a species become geographically separated and then diverge
-proposed to be the most common source of cladogenesis (splitting of lineages)
Term
Cladogenesis
Definition
-the splitting of lineages
Term
What is the "Founder Effect"
Definition
-a type of allopatric speciation that occurs when a small population moves to a new location that is geographically separated
-genetic drift and natural selection leads to differences
Term
Adaptive Radiation
Definition
-a single species evolves into an array of descendants that differ greatly in habitat, form or behavior
Term
Sympatric Speciation
Definition
-proposed to occur when members of a species that initially occupy the same habitat within the same range diverge into different species
-it involves abrupt genetic changes that lead to reproductive isolation of a group of individuals
Term
What is an example of Sympatric Speciation?
Definition
-changes in chromosome number in plants
Term
Autopolyploidy
Definition
-non-disjunction of chromosomes during meiosis; self-fertilization
-tetraploid species formed by crossing diploid species would not produces fertile offspring
Term
Allopolyploidy
Definition
-results from cross fertilization between to species
-a hybrid is produce that is most often sterile, but can reproduce asexually
-may restore sexual reproduction through subsequent chromosome duplication (producing 2 chromosome of each type)
Term
What type of plants are the most diverse plant division?
Definition
-flowering plants are this
-there are more flowering plants than all other plant species combined
Term
Alternation of Generations
Definition
-a sequence in a life cycle in which a haploid, gamete-producing phase, is followed by a diploid, spore-producing phase
-the spores reinitiate the haploid phase
Term
Gametophyte (Haploid)
Definition
-produce gametes by mitosis
-microscopic in flowering plants
Term
Sporophyte (Diploid)
Definition
-produce spores by meiosis
-large, independent, and recognizable in flowering plants
Term
What are general trends in the reproductive development of flowering plants?
Definition
-mature flowering plant produces seeds and fruits
-flower tissues enclose and protect the tiny male and female gametophytes
-fruits enclose seeds and function in seed dispersal
-seeds enclose plant embryos
Term
What are the 3 types of seed-to-seed lifetimes?
Definition
-annuals
-biennials
-perennials
Term
Annuals
Definition
-plants that die after producing seeds doing their first year of life
Term
Biennials
Definition
-plants that do not reproduce the first year, but may the following year
Term
Perennials
Definition
-plants that live for more than 2 years, often producing seeds every year after maturity
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