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Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy
Skull & Visceral skeleton, respiration, circulatory and appendicula skeleton
154
Science
Undergraduate 3
05/07/2009

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Term
Membrane
Definition
Must be:
1.) thin
2.)moist
3.) in contact with environment or environment brought in contact with membrane
4.) Rich supply of blood vessels
Term
Vertebrates
Definition
Have:
1.)Respiratory structures (lungs, gills..etc)
2.)Circulatory System
3.)Pespiratory membrane
Term
Vertebrate organs of respiration
Definition
1.) External & Internal gills (fish)
2.) Oropharyngeal mucosa (frogs)
3.) Swim bladder or lungs
4.) skin (highly vascular)= salamanders
Term
Internal gills
Definition
series of slits or pockets leading from pharyngeal region to outer surface of body
Term
Gill pouches
Definition
lined with gill lamellae; respiratory water enters & exits through external gill slits (*AGNATHANS)
Term
Chondrichthyes (sharks)- elasmobranchus
Definition
5-pair of gill pouches, spiracle contains a pseudobranch, function in moving water.
-Fast sharks = no spiracle
-Bottom dwellers = large spiracles
Term
Holobranch
Definition
"complete gill"; gill on both surfacees, septum & gill bar
Term
Hemibranch
Definition
only a single demibranch on septum
Term
Demibranch
Definition
= gill
Term
Interbranchial septa
Definition
(*Bony Fishes) shorter, thus filaments are free
Term
Operculaum
Definition
(*Bony Fishes) flap over gills [forms opercular or branchial chamber]
Term
Oral valves
Definition
(*Teleost) prevent water escape
Term
Additional function of gills in marinf teleost
Definition
excrete salt and nitrogenous waste in the form of ammonia
Term
Counter current
Definition
loads blood with O2; blood becomes fully saturated as it leaves the gill
**mantain gradient
Term
Concurrent
Definition
flow where equilibrium ccurs
**loss of gradient (50/50)
Term
Gill development
Definition
pouches push out from the pharynx until contact is made with infolding of the surface
Term
External gills
Definition
Develop in larval stage of most dipnoans. a;; amphibians, and some fish.
*Perennibranchiate urodels-gills retained in adult (Necturus)
Term
Swin bladder
Definition
Most vertebrates from fish to man develop an unpaired evagination from pharynx or esophagus that becomes one or pair of pneumatic sacs.
Term
Pneumatic sac
Definition
may retain connection with foregut or it may close; connects to esophagus dorsally in HOLOSTEAN (gar) & TELEOST
Term
physostomous
Definition
"duct open" Swim bladder extends to ear: chondrosteans, holosteans & a few teleost
Term
Physoclistous
Definition
"duct closed"-clinche
Term
Chief function of swim bladder
Definition
serves as hydrostatic organ; fish can change their specific gravity-increase or decrease buoyancy
Term
Lungs
Definition
Primitively vertebrate condition. Pharyngeal derivative: Glottis, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi
Term
Larynx
Definition
voice box in mammals: walls supported by cartilages
Term
Vocal folds
Definition
folded within anurans, lizards, most mammal
Term
Palatine velum
Definition
in crocodiles or valves at entrance of nares are anatokical adaptaions to prevent fluids from entering the glottis in aquatic tetrapods
Term
Epiglottis
Definition
Prevents solids from entering larynx; covers pharynx
Term
Trachea
Definition
Cartilage or bony C-shaped rings; Bifurcates in bronci (bifurcate=splitting)
Term
Amphibian lungs
Definition
simple inefficient sack
*Plethodontid slamanders are lungless
*Aquatic salamanders lung serves as a hydrostatic organ
Term
Retile lung
Definition
Spendon, snakes, lizards-lung still a sac with more pockets
*Turtles & crocs-lung more sponge like
Term
Bird lungs
Definition
Unique; incoming of air passes through the lungs into air sacs that extend among the vixcera, lie among flight muscles and into the bones
*Sacs act as bellows; walls are distensible
*help dissipate heat
Term
Alveoli
Definition
consist of squamous epithelium surrounded by capillaries
Term
CO2
Definition
7% in plasma, 23% as carbaminohemoglobun, 70% as conversion to bicarbonate & chloride shift (carbonic anhydrase)
Term
Oxygen & nutrient transport
Definition
1.)Extra embryonic membranes
2.)Digestive tract
3.)Storage sites
Term
Circulatory system function
Definition
Oxygen & nutrient transport
Removes waste
hormone transplant
homeostasis
Immunity
Repair injuries
Term
Removes waste
Definition
1.)CO2
2.)Nitrogenous-break down of proteins
Term
Homeostasis
Definition
1.)Uniformity of interstitial fluids (Lymph channels)
2.)uniformity of temperature
Term
Circulatory Components
Definition
Heart
Arteries
Arterioles
Capillaries
Venules
Veins (towards heart)
Term
Heart
Definition
pumping mechanism
Term
Arteries
Definition
Away from heart
Term
Capillaries
Definition
Endothelium - 1 cell thick
Precapillary sphincter
Term
Intima
Definition
endothelium
Term
Media
Definition
thicker in arteries/elastic fibers/smooth muscle
Term
Adventitia
Definition
arteries with elastic fibers
Term
Precapillary sphincters
Definition
regulate blood entering capillary bed; shunts blood to other sites
Term
Portal systems
Definition
begin as capillary system & end as capillary system
Term
Hepatic portal system
Definition
Intestines, pancreas, spleen to liver
Term
Renal portal system
Definition
Blood from the tail to kidney
Term
Hypophyseal portal system
Definition
Hypothalamus to pituitary
Term
Plasms
Definition
Fluid portion; Constitutes 55% of whole blood, 90% water, 10% dissolved solids % proteins(albumins, globulins, fribinogen, antibodies, waste products, salts, glucose, fat, amino acids...etc)
Term
Plasma
Definition
Fluid portion; Constitutes 55% of whole blood, 90% water, 10% dissolved solids % proteins(albumins, globulins, fibrinogen, antibodies, waste products, salts, glucose, fat, amino acids...etc)
Term
Serum
Definition
plasma with fibrinogen removed
Term
elements in plasma
Definition
RBC = erythrocytes, WBC = leukocytes, platelets = thrombocytes
Term
Erythrocytes (RBCs)
Definition
127 day life span
nucleated & oval shape in most animals; mammals it is unnucleated & biconcave
Term
Hemoglobin
Definition
Iron containing pigment
High affinity for oxygen
33% of RBC volume
Term
Hemopoiesis
Definition
Erythropoietic tissue
Yolk sac walls - inital source; fat cells & first vessels
Mammals: chorion of placenta, liver, red bone marrow (source in amniotes), spleen
RBC removal occurs in sinusoid tissue of spleen, liver, bone marrow - lined macrophages
Term
Leukocytes (WBC)
Definition
Spleen produces granular leukocytes most vertebrates
Granulocytes (polynuclear leukocytes)-granules in cytoplasm
Agranular leukpcytes
Term
Neutrophils (heterophils)
Definition
phagocytic, most numerous WBC, nucleus variable
Term
Eosinphils
Definition
Red cytoplasm = eosin stain (acidic)
3-5%
Term
Basophils
Definition
.5% in blood, basic stain
Term
Lymphocytes
Definition
second most abundant cell, T & B lymphocytes, Immune response, Abundant in nodes & spleen
Term
Monocytes
Definition
Largest cell, migrate into tissues and function as macrophages
Term
Thrombocytes
Definition
Platelets formed from megakaryocyte
Pluriopotential stem cell
Term
Pericardial cavity - location
Definition
parts: Endocardium (inner layer - enothelium)
Myocardium - cardiac muscle
Epicardium
Coronary artery "feeds heart"; coronary vein drains it
Heart beat - Electrolytes, Imposed on by autonomic nervous sytem
Muscle cells beat individually
In mammals SA-node regulate the beat
Term
Comparative heart
Definition
Single circuit
2 circuits
pulmonary circuit
systematic circuit
Term
Single circuit
Definition
Blood flows from heart to gills to body
Term
2 circuits (2 pumps = double heart)
Definition
Primarily lung breathers
Term
Pulmonary circuit
Definition
O2 poor: Heart -> lung -> Heart
Term
Systematic circuit
Definition
Pumps to body, O2 rich
Term
Dermal skeleton
Definition
Cleithrum
Clavicle - united in corocoid (lost in teleost)
Dorsal elements: Supracleithrum, Post-temporal - anchors girdle to skull
Term
Pectoral girdle
Definition
2 kinds of bony elements: dermal skeleton, endoskeleton
Term
Endoskeleton
Definition
Consists of 3 pairs of bones: Coracoid, Scapula, Suprascapula - Glenoid fossae
Term
Pelvic girdle
Definition
All endoskeleton
Essentially 3 bone: Pubis (ventral), Ischium (posterior), Acetabulum (socket)
Term
Limb modifications
Definition
Elongation of parts
Reduction of number of bones
Term
Ambulatory
Definition
Walking limb with plantigrade foot posture
Metacarpals, metatarsals, digits are on the ground
ex. bear, man, insectivore
Term
Cursorial
Definition
Running locomotion
(2 types: Digitigrade, unguligrade)
Term
Digitigrade
Definition
just the digits on the ground
ex. Dog, cat
Term
Unguligrade
Definition
Walking on nails or hoofs
Ex. Horse, cow, deer...etc
Term
Saltatorial
Definition
Leaping hind legs enlarged - front legs shortened
ex. Kangaroo rats
Term
Gravipostal
Definition
Flat joints - digits form circle around edge of foot
Term
Fins
Definition
Most are steereing devices or stabilizers
Consist of 2 surfaces of skin
Stiffened by fin rays
Supported at bases by pterygiphores (small carilages or bone)
Term
Paired fins
Definition
Lobed fins = sarcoptyergia
Fin fold = chondrichthyes
Ray fins = actinoptyeriga
Median fins: serve as keels
Dorsal, anal, caudal
Term
Caudal Fin
Definition
Heterocercal
Hypocercal
Homocercal
Diphyceral
Term
Heterocercal
Definition
Placoderms, sharks notochord turned upward
Term
Hypocercal
Definition
Vertebral column turns down rare condition
Term
Homocercal
Definition
Notochord turns upward
Term
Diphycercal
Definition
Vertebral column ends with little upbending. Dipnoans & Latimeria
Term
Tetrapod limbs
Definition
homologous segment in tetrapods remarkably similar (difference distally)
**humerus, radius & ulna (maybe fused to radius or vestigial. ex. Bat & Frog)
Term
Manus or hand
Definition
Functional unit consists of wrist, palm, hand
manus of all tetrapods relatively similar - 3 rows of carpals, metacarpals, digits- phalanges
Term
Pollex
Definition
thumb
Term
Pes
Definition
Foot
Term
Hallux
Definition
Big toe
Term
Neurocranium
Definition
Protects brain & special sense organs
Performs as cartilage
Partially or wholly replaced by bone
Term
cartilaginous stage
Definition
Begins as parachordal & prechordal cartilages beneath brain
Term
Olfactory capsule
Definition
Surround olfactory epithelium
Term
Otic capsule
Definition
Surround otocyst
Term
Optic capsule
Definition
Forms around retina to form sclerotic coat of eyeball
Term
cyclostome
Definition
cartilages remain independent
Term
Cartilaginous fishes
Definition
Embryonis components unite to form chondrocranium
Brain completely roofed by cartilage
Term
Lower bony fishes
Definition
Cartilaginous neurocranium persists in chondristian (sturgeon, spoonbill) & holostean (bowfin, gar); covered with membrane bone
Term
Modern bony fishes
Definition
cartilaginous neurocranium replaced by endochondrial bone in teleost & amniotes
Term
Neurocranial Centers
Definition
Occipital Center
Sphenoid Center
Ethmoid center
Otic Center
Term
Dermatocranium
Definition
Roofing bones
Dermal bones (of upper jaw)
Primary Palatal bones
Opercular bones
Term
Roofing bones
Definition
Provide protective shield over brain & special sense organs
Term
Dermal bones of the upper jaw
Definition
Palatoquadrate cartilage - endochondrial component
In bony vertebrates - overlaid or replaced by dermal bones such as premaxillae & makillae (becomes part of dermatocranium)
Term
Primary Palatal bones
Definition
roof of oropharyngeal cavity of fishes & oral cavity of lower vertebrates
Crossopterygeans & early tetrapods (consisted of parashenoid, vomers, palatines, pterygoids, ecoptygoids) - all teeth bearing
Modern tetrapods - primary palate remains the roof of the nasal passageway
Term
Opercular bones
Definition
Flap of tissue arises as an outgrowth of the hyoid arch
covers gills
bony fish - squamous plates of dermal bone
tetrapods have no vestiges of operculum or gular plate
Term
Chondrosteans
Definition
Sturgeon & spoonbill - neurocranium almost completely cartilaginous
Term
Holosteans
Definition
Amia - highly cartilaginous neurocranium
Term
Teleost
Definition
Highly specialized & diverse (diverse feeding habits)
Highly manuverable jaws & palates
Largest number of bones in skull of any vertebrate
Neurocranium fully ossified in most
Term
Dipnoans
Definition
Primitive condition - large number of scale-like dermal bones
Today - few broad bony plates
Neurocranium largely cartilaginous
Term
Tetrapods - Amphibians
Definition
Neurocranium - largely cartilaginous
Dermatocranium - fewer bones than labyrinthodonts
Term
Reptiles
Definition
Cotylosaurus were not much different from labyrinthodonts
Primitive features still present in modern reptiles
full complement of neurocranial bones
single occipital condyle
larger complement of membrane bones
parietal foramen (in some - third eye)
Sphenodon - hole on top of head, not actual eye, detected light, attached to pineal gland
Term
4 lines of reptiles based on temporal fossae
Definition
Anapsid
Synapsid
Eurapsid
Diapsid
Term
Anapsid
Definition
No fossa present
Occured in stem reptiles (cotylosaurs)
Turtles only group that retained anapsid condition
Term
Synapsid
Definition
Single lateral temporal fossa
Zygomatic arch formed from squamosal & jugal
(synapsid - was an extinct group of mammal-like reptile)
Term
Diapsid
Definition
Superior & inferior temporal fossa
Crocodilians & sphenodon still have diapsid skull
Modern lizzards & snakes have a modified diapsid skull. Have lost all or part of the lower arch
Term
Eurapsid
Definition
No living representatives
ex. Ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs
Had one fossa
Term
Secondary Palate (turtle)
Definition
Appears first in reptiles
Horizontal partition - divides oral and nasal cavities
Primary palate remains the roof of nasal passageway
Term
scondary palate in other reptiles
Definition
INCOMPLETE
Turtles have deep lonitudinal grooves, used to channel air (top of oral nasal cavity)
Term
Secondary Palate - Mammals
Definition
only other vertebrate that has a secondary palate that extends all the eay to the pharynx
Term
Cranial Kinesis
Definition
Correlated with capture & manipulation of food
Allows lizard to raise upper jaw
Allows snake's upper jaw to move as a unit
Term
Birds
Definition
Larger brain
Reduction of bone thickness of skull
Loss of sutures
Massive orbits
Neurocranium well ossified
Single occipital condyle
modified diapsid skull
Term
Two functional regions (bird skull)
Definition
1.)Rear - soild bony box: houses brain
2.)Front - visceral area: elongates the palate & beak - role of food procurement
Term
Mammal vs Reptiles (skull)
Definition
Emergence of dentary - sole bone of lower jaw
skull increasingly domed (mammal)
Articulation dentary & squamosal
Well developed secondary palate
3 bones of middle ear
Term
Fontanel
Definition
Soft spots in newborn
2 occipital condyles
Term
Temporal complex
Definition
numerous components: Squamous portion, Petrous portion (ossified otic capsule)
Tympanic portion - surrounds middle ear
Term
Cranial sinuses
Definition
Maxilla, ffrontal, sphenoid, ethnoid
Term
Visceral skeleton
Definition
Cartilage or bony elements associated with branchial arches or gill arches

**Splanchnocranium - Pharyngeal skeleton
Forms in the gut wall not body (somatic) wall
Term
Cyclostome visceral skeleton
Definition
Anterior arches support & stiffen rasping tounge
Remainder form branchial basket
Term
Jawed fishes visceral skeleton
Definition
Consists of jointed bars which form arches between successive gills
Term
mandibular arch
Definition
modified into jaws:
Palaquadrate
Meckel's cartilage
Term
Hyoid arch
Definition
Forms support for lower jaw
Term
Hyomandibula
Definition
formed from the modified enlarged epibranchia (dorsal part of arch)
-hyomandibula braces the jaw
Term
Typical arch
Definition
Branchial arches support the gills
Term
Jaw development
Definition
considered one of the greatest advances in vertebrate history - revolutionized feeding
Term
Jaw Suspension (3 types)
Definition
-Hyostylic
-Amphistytic
-Autostylic
Term
Hyostylic
Definition
Modern fishes
Upper jaw loses connection with the brain case
Braced by the hyomandibular
Term
Amphistylic
Definition
Supported by hyomandibular & direct support to brain case
Term
Autostylic
Definition
Ancestral fishes (lungfish)
Upper jaw supported directly to brain case & hyomandibular has no function in jaw support
Term
Fishes
Definition
Membrane bone invests: the palaquadrate - premaxilla & maxilla (bone)
Meckel's cartilage: Caudal end becomes the articular, Rest - dentary, angular, subangular
Upper jaw incorporated into dermatocranium
Term
Tetrapods
Definition
Profound changes in visceral skeleton
Palaquadrate ensheathed by dermal bone - premailla & mailla (amphibians, reptiles, birds)
Palatine portion contribute to primary palate
Posterior end of cartilage ossifies - becomes the quadrate
Term
Meckel's cartilage
Definition
Turtles & crocodiles - cartilage becomes prominent cartilage core
Little cartilage left - invested with bone
Posterior end of Meckel's cartilage becomes articular
Mammals - posterior end of meckel's cartialge becomes malleus
Term
Dentary in mammals
Definition
Expanded
Ramus developed on dentary
Moved increasingly toward temporal fossa
Mandible bones all but disappear except dentary
Dentary close to squamosal - new articulation
Term
Eozostrodon
Definition
Considered oldest mammal of late Triassic (2 articulation sites)
-Articula: quadrate articulation
-Dentary: squamosal articulation
Term
Mandible in mammals
Definition
Bones all but disappear except dentary development
Term
Ear Ossicles (sharks)
Definition
Hyomandibular cartilage between quadrate & otic capsule
Term
Ear Ossicles (Tetrapods)
Definition
Lost articular quadrate connection
Become attached to tympanic membrane
Forms forst ear ossicle called columella
Columella conducts sound wave from the eardrum to inner ear
Term
Ear Ossicle (mammals)
Definition
Malleus - formed from posterior end of Meckel's cartilage (articular bone)
Incus - believed to be derived from quadrate (evidence less direct)
Stapes - (columella) hyomandibular
Term
Hyoid apparatus
Definition
In tetrapods - structures serves to support the tounge
Derived from lower part of hyoid arch & 1 or more branchial arches
Hyoid consist of 2 parts
Body
Horn (2-3)
Term
Entoglossal bone
Definition
represents Hyoid body in lizards and birds
Term
Mammal hyoid
Definition
has 2 horns
Anterior arch 2nd arch
Posterior arch 3rd arch
Term
Laryngeal skeleton
Definition
Thyroid & Cricoid cartilage derived from visceral elements
Term
Tracheal cartilages
Definition
Also considered visceral skeletal elements
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